THE  MILITARY  TRACT 


NORMAL 

SCHOOL  QUARTERLY 


March,  1913 


CONTENTS 


AGRICULTURE 

Circular  No.  3 Soil  Experiment  Field 

( Co-operative) 

JOHN  THOMAS  JOHNSON,  A.  B.  (U.  of  111.) 


Published  by  the  Trustees  of  the  Western  Illinois  State 
Normal  School,  Macomb,  Illinois 


NORMAL  SCHOOL  QUARTERLY 


MARCH,  1913  NUMBER  18 


INTRODUCTION 

This  quarterly  should  have  been  issued  one  year  ago,  but  there  were  a 
number  of  things  which  prevented  it.  Among  them  was  the  fact  that  the 
author,  who  was  formerly  head  of  the  Department  of  Biology  and  Agricul- 
ture in  this  school,  accepted  a position  as  Director  of  Science  and  Agricul- 
ture in  the  Kent  State  Normal  School,  at  Kent,  Ohio,  a short  time  before 
the  material  for  it  was  to  have  been  put  in  shape.  His  new  duties  con- 
sumed all  of  his  time  for  several  months. 

I requested  Mr.  Johnson  to  prepare  this  quarterly  because  he  had 
started  the  work  here  in  Agriculture  in  1906,  and  had  kept  statistics  on  the 
plots  in  the  experimental  field  from  that  time  until  he  left,  a period  of  six 
years.  Thus  he  was  entirely  familiar  with  the  larger  bulk  of  this  work. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Finley  followed  Mr.  Johnson  as  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Biology  and  Agriculture  and  has  continued  the  experiments  until 
the  present  time.  His  results  have  been  tabulated  and  are  included  also. 

All  of  the  data  here  used  has  been  gathered  in  connection  with  experi- 
ments carried  on  in  the  experimental  field  and  laboratory  in  connection  with 
this  school.  These  experiments  grow  out  of  work  in  the  various  courses 
which  are  given  at  the  institution  each  year  and  are  outlined  in  the  fol- 
lowing: 


Agriculture  for  Students  in  the  Academy. 

Agriculture  1. — The  aim  of  this  course  is  to  create  in  the  minds  of  the 
students  an  intelligent  interest  in  farm  practices.  Some  of  the  things  con- 
sidered are  plants;  plant  propagation;  plant  breeding;  animals  and  animal 
breeding;  natural  and  commercial  fertilizers;  crops  and  crop  rotation;  farm 
homes  and  farm  management.  The  work  consists  of  recitations,  laboratory 
exercises,  field  trips,  and  practical  work  in  the  experiment  field. 

Agriculture  for  Students  Who  are  Preparing  to  Teach  in  the  Country 

Schools. 

Agriculture  15. — This  course  deals  with  elements  of  agriculture  and  is 
based  on  the  primary  needs  of  the  farm  and  garden.  Special  effort  is  made 
to  assist  the  teacher  who  has  had  no  training  in  the  subject  and  who  wishes 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  county  superintendent  and  the  state  course 
of  study.  The  school  offers  an  opportunity  to  see  farm  crops  growing  on  the 
experiment  field  located  on  the  campus.  As  much  laboratory  work  is  given 
as  the  time  permits.  This  consists  of  simple  suggestive  exercises. 
Agriculture  for  Students  Who  are  Taking  Regular  Normal  School  Work. 

Agriculture  20. — Similar  to  Agriculture  1.  More  emphasis  is  given  to 


0 


the  teaching  of  the  subject  in  the  grades  and  to  study  the  course  outlined  in 
the  state  course  of  study. 

Agriculture  21. — Soils  and  Soil  Fertility.  Most  of  the  work  of  this 
course  has  to  do  with  the  work  of  soils  and  soil  fertility.  It  is  not 
intended  to  go  into  minute  detail  of  the  structure  and  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  soil,  hut  to  learn  in  a practical  way  the  methods  of  farm  prac- 
tices which  will  result  in  profitable  crops.  Some  time  is  given  to  the  study 
of  plant  propagation;  plant  and  animal  breeding,  and  economic  insects  and 
insecticides. 

Prerequisites:  Agriculture  I and  Botany. 

Courses  in  physics  and  chemistry  are  recommended  but  not  required. 

Conclusion. 

This  Quarterly,  No.  18,  is  a revision  of  Quarterly  No.  8,  known  as  Agri- 
cultural Circular  No.  2,  and  is  printed  because  copies  of  that  number  are 
completely  exhausted,  and  repeated  requests  for  it  have  shown  the  demand 
for  this  publication.  It  is  being  put  out  as  one  of  the  regular  bulletins  of 
the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  but  is  a joint  production  with  the 
Kent  State  Normal  School  of  Ohio,  being  issued  as  Bulletin  No.  9,  because 
Mr.  Johnson  is  now  located  there.  The  need  for  such  material  as  herein  set 
forth  is  ever  increasing  as  agriculture  passes  from  the  haphazard  trial  and 
error  process  to  a scientific  one  based  on  experimental  data  which  has  been 
repeatedly  verified. 

We  trust  this  number  may  be  as  generally  useful  to  those  who  are  mak- 
ing a special  study  of  agriculture  and  to  those  who  are  introducing  it  and 
teaching  it  in  the  public  schools  as  the  former  one  has  been. 

W.  P.  MORGAN. 


AGRICULTURE 


Agriculture  has  been  and  always  will  be  a fundamental  industry  among 
rural  people.  Human  existence  makes  it  necessary.  Rural  communities 
depend  directly  upon  successful  crop  production  with  the  accessory  farm 
industries.  While  it  cannot  be  said  that  urban  communities  depend  upon 
crop  production  as  exclusively  as  do  the  rural  communities,  yet  in  part  they 
are  as  directly  bound  to  the  soil  for  sustenance  whether  their  chief  interest 
be  manufacturing,  mining,  shipping,  or  any  other  form  of  commercial  activ- 
ity. Whatever  form  of  industrial  occupation  man  may  choose,  he  is  so 
intimately  related  to  agriculture  that  crop  failure  not  only  is  a loss  to  the 
people  actually  engaged  in  it,  but  a failure  injures  all  others  more  or  less. 
A succession  of  only  a few  crop  failures  would  transform  any  country  into 
a condition  of  panic,  and  there  are  some  countries  today  which  cannot  suffer 
a partial  crop  failure  in  one  season  without  great  distress.  All  of  the  fore- 
going facts  are  well  known  and  are  interesting,  not  so  much  in  their  serious 
aspect,  as  to  the  fact  that  they  point  to  a grave  situation  which  in  the  last 
decade  is  taking  hold  of  the  consciousness  of  the  people.  No  community, 
however  small  or  great,  can  experience  a shortage  of  food  or  a high  cost  of 
living  without  making  some  sort  of  appeal  for  relief.  Naturally,  one  appeal 
is  for  a reduction  of  price  for  commodities  and  the  other  is  an  appeal  for  an 
increased  supply.  It  is  evident  that  the  only  relief  must  come  from  an 
increased  production,  assuming  that  the  ratio  of  the  tilled  acres  and  the 
population  remains  the  same.  At  present  the  rate  of  increase  in  popu- 
lation is  greater  than  the  rate  of  increase  of  tillable  acres,  and  the  dis- 
parity is  likely  to  become  greater  rather  than  smaller.  Increased  production 
seems  likely  to  come  either  through  scientific  agriculture  and  intensified 
farming,  or  the  acquisition  of  agricultural  lands  not  now  under  cultivation. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  while  the  geographical  acreage  untilled  is 
very  great,  yet  according  to  the  best  estimation  the  available  land  suitable 
for  agricultural  purposes  is  small  and  altogether  would  equal  in  area  a 
state  about  the  size  of  Illinois.  It  would  seem  that  out  of  the  two  possi- 
bilities, the  one  which  will  afford  the  surest  relief  is  a method  of  agriculture 
based  upon  scientific  principles.  In  order  that  the  methods  may  obtain  those 
who  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  must  in  some  way  be  made  more 
efficient.  Several  agencies  are  in  existence  which  are  designed  to  improve 
the  methods  of  agricultural  practice.  The  state  experiment  stations,  by 
scientific  investigation  and  the  publication  of  the  data  in  bulletins  and  cir- 
culars for  free  distribution,  furnish  a wealth  of  information.  The  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  publishing  its  Farmers’  Bulletins 
is  performing  a similar  service  for  all  of  the  states.  Farmers’  institutes, 
newspapers  and  the  various  agricultural  organizations  are  accomplishing 
much  in  the  direction  of  better  methods  in  farming.  Notwithstanding  the 
benefits  derived  from  the  before  mentioned  agencies  for  improved  methods 
in  agriculture  the  people  are  emphatic  in  their  demand  for  agricultural 
instruction  in  the  public  schools.  In  view  of  the  present  situation  there  is 
little  wonder  that  such  a strong  sentiment  should  prevail.  It  is  remarkable 


8 


how  rapidly  the  sentiment  has  grown.  School  curricula  are  being  reorgan- 
ized, new  text  books  are  being  written  and  old  ones  revised  in  order  that  a 
new  adjustment  can  be  made  to  daily  life  relations.  Schools  are  becoming 
more  efficient  to  the  end  that  the  husbandman  and  the  craftsman  may  become 
more  efficient.  Intelligent  operations  are  being  substituted  for  rule  of 
thumb  practices,  in  a word,  education  is  supplanting  dogma.  Our  schools 
are  becoming  more  serviceable  to  the  people  for  whom  they  are  established 
and  by  whom  they  are  legalized  and  supported.  In  a few  states  this  new 
sentiment  has  been  recognized  by  making  agricultural  instruction  compul- 
sory in  the  rural  communities.  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennes- 
see, Georgia,  Texas,  Alabama,  South  Dakota,  Wisconsin,  Oregon,  Mississippi, 
Louisian  and  Ohio  require  instruction  in  the  public  schools  and  there  is  no. 
state  or  territory  in  which  it  is  not  taught.  The  public  schools  have  a new 
responsibility  and  at  the  same  time  a great  opportunity. 

In  the  early  development  of  this  country  when  the  mode  of  living  was 
more  simple,  when  the  virgin  capacity  of  the  soil  furnished  food  supplies  in 
excess  of  the  demand,  when  marketing  conditions  were  simple  and  easy, 
where  they  existed  at  all,  the  old  art  of  farming  was  efficient  for  prevailing 
conditions  and  home  instruction  was  sufficient.  Considering  only  the  wel- 
fare of  the  community  at  that  time,  there  was  no  necessity  for  special  agri- 
cultural instruction  in  the  school  which  should  supplement  and  supercede 
home  instruction.  Neither  at  that  time  was  there  any  science  which  could 
offer  any  assistance.  It  was  not  long,  however,  till  a better  system  of  agri- 
culture could  be  foreseen  as  a future  necessity  because  the  soils  showed 
plainly  a lower  limit  of  production.  It  is  difficult  to  detect  soil  depletion 
when  obscured  by  complicating  seasonal  fluctuations,  yet  the  large  planters 
in  Colonial  days  observed  the  fact  and  urged  the  necessity  of  making  a 
careful  study  of  soils  and  advised  the  rotation  of  crops.  Benjamin  Franklin 
believed  in  improved  methods  and  showed  by  practice  that  land  well  fer- 
tilized yielded  larger  returns  than  similar  land  untreated.  George  Washing- 
ton was  a large  planter  in  his  time  and  did  much  to  improve  conditions  in 
America.  Upon  his  estates  he  planted  the  best  improved  seed  which  he 
secured  from  France.  He  sought  advice  from  European  experts  and  im- 
ported the  stock  for  his  estates  from  abroad.  The  overseers  who  managed 
his  plantations  were  secured  from  Scotland.  In  a sense  his  fields  were  ex- 
periment plots,  which  illustrated  improved  methods  managed  by  agricultural 
experts.  He  kept  records,  improved  the  seed  by  selection,  and  studied  live 
stock  breeding.  He  was  among  the  first  to  observe  a decline  in  crop  produc- 
tion and  as  a means  of  preventing  soil  exhaustion,  he  adopted  a rotation  of 
crops  and  fertilized  the  land.  George  Washington  was  not  only  a great 
soldier  and  patriot,  but  he  distinguished  himself  as  an  agriculturalist.  His 
fame  was  so  great  that  he  was  consulted  by  the  leaders  in  Europe.  While 
his  duties  as  a general  in  the  Revolutionary  war  claimed  most  of  his  time, 
he  always  gave  ample  attention  to  his  estates  by  directing  all  of  the  farm 
operations  in  detail.  It  is  a pleasure  to  note  that  he  strongly  advocated  the 
establishment  of  agricultural  schools,  and  was  a member  of  the  first  Agri- 
cultural society  which  was  organized  in  1785.  After  his  services  in  political 
life  were  completed,  he  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  where  he  hoped  to  spend 
the  remainder  of  his  life  in  the  enjoyable  occupation  of  building  up  his 


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estates.  No  better  tribute  can  be  found  to  the  occupation  of  farming  than 
the  following  quotations  from  his  pen: 

“I  think  that  the  life  of  an  husbandman  of  all  others  is  the  most  delect- 
able. It  is  honorable,  it  is  amusing,  and,  with  judicious  management,  it  is 
profitable.  To  see  plants  rise  from  the  earth  and  flourish  by  the  supreme 
skill  and  bounty  of  the  laborer  fills  a contemplative  mind  with  ideas  which 
are  more  easy  to  be  conceived  than  expressed. 

“I  know  of  no  other  pursuit  in  which  more  real  and  important  service 
can  be  rendered  to  any  country  than  by  improving  its  agriculture,  its  breed 
of  useful  animals,  and  other  branches  of  an  husbandman’s  care.” 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  a strong  advocate  of  agriculture.  As  a matter  of 
evidence  there  is  nothing  so  convincing  as  a portion  of  the  address  delivered 
before  the  Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society  by  Lincoln  in  1859.  Natu- 
rally in  the  address  the  value  of  scientific  methods  and  a thorough  education 
was  considered  from  the  farmer’s  point  of  view,  but  the  application  of  the 
idea  in  our  schools  today  in  training  the  farmer’s  son  and  daughter  is 
closely  related  and  very  apparent.  It  seems  worth  while  to  quote  a part 
of  what  Lincoln  said. 

“The  effect  of  thorough  cultivation  upon  the  farmer’s  own  mind,  and  in 
reaction  through  his  mind  back  upon  his  business,  is  perhaps  quite  equal  to 
any  other  of  its  effects.  Every  man  is  proud  of  what  he  does  well,  and  no 
man  is  proud  of  that  he  does  not  well.  With  the  former  his  heart  is  in  his 
work,  and  he  will  do  twice  as  much  of  it  with  less  fatigue;  the  latter  he  per- 
forms a little  imperfectly,  looks  at  it  in  disgust,  turns  from  it,  and  imagines 
himself  exceedingly  tired — the  little  he  has  done  comes  to  nothing  for  want 
of  finishing. 

“The  man  who  produces  a good  full  crop  will  scarcely  ever  let  any  part 
of  it  go  to  waste;  he  will  keep  up  the  inclosure  about  it,  and  allow  neither 
man  nor  beast  to  trespass  upon  it;  he  will  gather  it  in  due  season,  and  store 
it  in  perfect  security.  Thus  he  labors  with  satisfaction,  and  saves  himself 
the  whole  fruit  of  his  labor.  The  other,  starting  with  no  purpose  for  a full 
crop,  labors  less,  and  with  less  satisfaction,  allows  his  fences  to  fall,  and 
cattle  to  trespass,  gathers  not  in  due  season,  or  not  at  all.  Thus  the  labor 
he  has  performed  is  wasted  away,  little  by  little,  till  in  the  end  he  derives 
scarcely  anything  from  it. 

“The  old  general  rule  was  that  educated  people  did  not  perform  manual 
labor.  They  managed  to  eat  their  bread,  leaving  the  toil  of  producing  it  to 
the  uneducated.  This  was  not  an  insupportable  evil  to  the  working  bees,  so 
long  as  the  class  of  drones  remained  very  small.  But  now,  especially  in 
these  free  States,  nearly  all  are  educated — quite  too  nearly  all  to  leave  the 
labor  of  the  uneducated  in  any  wise  adequate  to  the  support  of  the  whole. 
It  follows  from  this  that  henceforth  educated  people  must  labor.  Otherwise, 
education  itself  would  become  a positive  and  intolerable  evil.  No  country 
can  sustain  in  idleness  more  than  a small  percentage  of  its  numbers.  The 
great  majority  must  labor  at  something  productive.  Prom  these  premises 
the  problem  springs,  ‘How  can  labor  and  education  be  the  most  satisfactorily 
combined?’ 

Pree  labor  argues  that  as  the  Author  of  man  makes  every  individual 
with  one  head  and  one  pair  of  hands,  it  probably  intended  that  heads  and 
hands  should  co-operate  as  friends  and  that  that  particular  head  should 


10 


direct  and  control  that  pair  of  hands.  As  each  man  has  one  mouth  to  be 
fed,  and  one  pair  of  hands  to  furnish  food,  it  was  probably  intended  that 
that  particular  pair  of  hands  should  feed  that  particular  mouth — that  each 
head  is  the  natural  guardian,  director,  and  protector  of  the  hands  and  mouth 
inseparably  connected  with  it;  and  that  being  so,  every  head  should  be  cul- 
tivated and  improved  by  whatever  will  add  to  its  capacity  for  performing 
its  charge.  In  one  word,  free  labor  insists  on  universal  education. 

“This  leads  to  the  further  reflection  that  no  other  human  occupation 
opens  so  wide  a field  for  the  profitable  and  agreeable  combination  of  labor 
with  cultivated  thought  as  agriculture.  I know  nothing  so  pleasant  to  the 
mind  as  the  discovery  of  anything  that  is  at  once  new  and  valuable — nothing 
that  so  lightens  and  sweetens  toil  as  the  hopeful  pursuit  of  such  discovery. 
And  how  vast  and  how  varied  a field  is  agriculture  for  such  discovery!  The 
mind,  already  trained  to  thought  in  the  country  school,  or  higher  school 
cannot  fail  to  find  there  an  exhaustless  source  of  enjoyment.  Every  blade 
of  grass  is  a study;  and  to  produce  two  where  there  was  but  one  is  both  a 
profit  and  pleasure.  And  not  grass  alone,  but  soils,  seeds  and  season — 
hedges,  ditches,  and  fences — draining,  droughts,  and  irrigation — plowing, 
hoeing  and  harrowing — reaping,  mowing  and  threshing — saving  crops,  pests 
of  crops,  diseases  of  crops  and  what  will  prevent  or  cure  them — implements, 
utensils,  and  machines,  their  relative  merits,  and  how  to  improve  them — 
hogs,  horses  and  cattle — sheep,  goats  and  poultry — trees,  shrubs,  fruits, 
plants  and  flowers — the  thousand  things  of  which  these  are  specimens — each 
a world  of  study  within  itself. 

“In  all  this,  book-learning  is  available.  A capacity  and  taste  for  read- 
ing gives  access  to  whatever  has  already  been  discovered  by  others.  It  is 
the  key,  or  one  of  the  keys,  to  the  already  solved  problems.  And  not  only 
so:  it  gives  a relish  and  facility  for  successfully  pursuing  the  unsolved  ones. 
The  rudiments  of  science  are  available.  Some  knowledge  of  botany  assists 
in  dealing  with  the  vegetable  world — with  all  growing  crops.  Chemistry 
assists  in  the  analysis  of  soils,  selection  and  application  of  manures,  and  in 
numerous  other  ways.  The  mechanical  branches  of  natural  philosophy  are 
ready  help  in  almost  everything,  but  especially  in  reference  to  implements 
and  machinery. 

“The  thought  recurs  that  education — cultivated  thought — can  best  be 
combined  with  agricultural  labor,  or  any  labor,  on  the  principle  of  thorough 
work;  that  careless,  half  performed,  slovenly  work  makes  no  place  for  such 
combination:  and  thorough  work,  again,  renders  sufficient  the  smallest  quan- 
tity of  ground  to  each  man;  and  this  again,  conforms  to  what  must  occur 
in  a world  less  inclined  to  wars  and  more  devoted  to  the  arts  and  peace  than 
heretofore.  Population  must  increase  rapidly,  more  rapidly  than  in  former 
times,  and  ere  long  the  most  valuable  of  all  arts  will  be  the  art  of  deriving 
a comfortable  subsistence  from  the  smallest  area  of  soil.  No  community 
whose  every  member  possesses  this  art,  can  ever  be  the  victim  of  oppression 
in  any  of  its  forms.  Such  community  will  be  alike  independent  of  crowned 
kings,  money  kings  and  land  kings.” 


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SOIL  EXPERIMENT  FIELD. 

Location. 

The  Western  Illinois  Normal  Soil  Experiment  Field  is  located  in  the 
northwest  corner  of  the  campus  on  the  S.  E.  2*4  acres  of  the  S.  E.  10  of  the 
N.  E.  40  of  the  N.  W.  % of  Section  36,  Twp.  6 N.  R.  3 W.  of  the  fourth  prin- 
cipal meridian. 


Soil  Type. 

The  Soil  Experiment  Field  is  on  a type  of  soil  known  as  gray  silt 
loam,  natural  timber  land,  and  is  nearly  level,  situated  in  the  Upper  Illi- 
nois Glaciation.  The  gray  silt  loam  represents  a large  area  of  soil  in  the 
Upper  Illinois  Glaciation,  but  not  nearly  so  large  an  area  as  the  brown  silt 
loam  type.  It  is  part  of  the  general  plan  to  have  an  experiment  field  upon 
the, brown  silt  loam  somewhere  upon  representative  land  in  the  near  future. 

Co-operative  Plan. 

The  Soil  Experiment  Field  is  co-operative  and  is  conducted  by  the 
University  of  Illinois  through  its  College  of  Agriculture  and  Experiment 
Station,  and  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School  through  its  depart- 
ment of  Biology  and  Agriculture.  Prof.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins,  chief  in  Agron- 
omy and  Chemistry,  who  is  recognized  as  an  authority  in  the  fertility  of 
soils,  prepared  the  plans  to  be  used  in  conducting  the  field  experiments. 
The  Normal  School,  as  its  share  of  the  responsibility,  takes  full  charge  of 
the  field  operations  implied  in  the  plans.  Such  co-operation  provides  for 
both  scientific  and  educative  values  in  the  work  and  it  is  proposed  to  make 
the  results  as  far-reaching  as  is  possible.  Not  alone  to  teachers,  and  pros- 
pective teachers  will  it  be  valuable,  but  as  well  to  persons  now  engaged  in 
such  practice  and  to  those  persons  who  are  not  actively  engaged  in  (such 
practice),  but  are  interested  in  agricultural  methods  and  results.  The 
useful  to  all  interested  persons  who  are  invited  and  always  welcome  to 
visit  the  field  at  their  pleasure  and  convenience. 

In  order  that  the  plans  may  be  of  greatest  service  the  details  are 
given  in  the  following  paragraphs  as  a guide  to  those  who  wish  to  ob- 
serve the  field  operations  and  investigate  the  results  of  the  experimental 
work.  It  is  suggested,  since  the  year  1906  is  the  beginning  it  was  not  pos- 
sible to  conduct  the  field  work  in  the  regular  way  and  the  results  of  this 
year  are  not  to  be  thought  to  be  as  trustworthy  as  in  succeeding  years. 
For  instance,  it  is  proposed  to  grow  winter  wheat  in  the  rotation,  but  since 
the  experiment  field  was  not  available  till  spring,  the  only  alternative  was  to 
substitute  spring  wheat  in  order  that  the  crops  in  the  rotation  might  be 
represented.  However,  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  general  aim  is  to 
ascertain  what  this  type  of  soil  is  capable  of  yielding  under  known  condi- 
tions, and  that  yields,  though  small,  having  comparative  values  are  quite 
as  important  as  large  yields  without  such  values. 

Details  of  Plan. 

The  experiment  field  is  divided  into  forty  (40)  plots,  each  one  rod 
square,  and  each  surrounded  by  a protecting  border  one-quarter  rod  wide. 
The  plots  are  arranged  in  two  divisions,  separated  by  a sod  strip  one  and 
one-half  rods  wide  and  bordered  by  sod  strips  two  rods  wide  on  the  east 


and  west  and  one  and  one-quarter  rods  wide  on  the  north  and  south. 

The  individual  plots  are  numbered  from  1 to  5 from  west  to  east,  and 
the  series  of  five  plots  each  from  100  to  800  from  north  to  south.  In  this 
way  three  figures  will  give  at  once  the  exact  location  of  any  plot.  Thus, 
plot  503  is  the  middle  plot  in  the  north  series  of  the  south  division.  Plot 
805  is  the  southeast  corner  plot  of  the  south  division. 

Systems  of  Farming. 

The  four  series  of  the  north  division  are  devoted  to  a system  of  grain 
farming  in  which  the  humus  and  nitrogen  are  to  be  maintained  by  plow- 
ing under  legume  crops  and  the  residues  of  other  crops,  such  as  the  stalks 
of  the  corn  crop,  and  possibly  the  straw  from  the  oat  and  wheat  crops,  and 
all  of  the  clover  crop  except  the  seed;  also,  the  four  series  of  the  south  di- 
vision are  devoted  to  a system  of  live  stock  farming  in  which  the  crops  are 
all  removed  from  the  land,  including  the  corn  stalks,  straw,  and  clover  hay, 
while  farm  manure  is  to  be  returned  in  proportion  to  the  crops  produced. 

Treatment. 

The  treatment  for  the  north  division  of  plots  is  as  follows: 

Plot  No.  1 — No  treatment. 

Plot  No.  2 — Legume  treatment  (turning  back  to  the  soil  everything 
grown  upon  the  land  excepting  grains  and  clover  seed). 

Plot  No.  3 — Legume,  lime. 

Plot  No.  4 — Legume,  lime,  phosphorus. 

Plot  No.  5 — Legume,  lime,  phosphorus,  potassium. 

For  the  south  division  is  the  following  treatment: 

Plot  No.  1 — No  treatment. 

Plot  No.  2 — Manure. 

Plot  No.  3 — Manure,  lime. 

Plot  No.  4 — Manure,  lime,  phosphorus. 

Plot  No.  5 — Manure,  lime,  phosphorus,  potassium. 

For  each  division  is  to  be  maintained  the  following  four-year  rotation: 

Rotation. 

First  year,  corn. 

Second  year,  oats. 

Third  year,  wheat. 

Fourth  year,  clover. 

The  rotation  applies  to  each  of  the  four  series  in  each  division  and  be- 
cause there  are  four  series  in  each  division  it  is  possible  to  have  each  crop 
represented  every  year  and  by  having  two  divisions  each  crop  is  grown  in 
duplicate. 

In  starting  the  work,  corn  is  put  on  series  100  and  500;  oats  on  series 
200  and  600;  spring  wheat  on  series  300  and  700;  and  clover  seeded  without 
a nurse  crop  on  series  400  and  800. 


13 


Method  of  Seeding  and  Harvesting  Crops. 

The  fertilizer  is  applied  only  on  the  exact  square  rod,  but  the  crop  to 
be  grown  is  planted  on  both  the  plot  and  the  protecting  borders.  Thus,  in 
planting  the  corn  on  series  100,  on  each  plot  there  are  seven  hills  square 
with  three  (3)  feet,  3 3-5  inches  between  the  hills  each  way,  and  the  ex- 
act plot  line  lies  half  way  between  the  outside  row  and  the  next  row  in- 
side. This  provides  for  a wide  middle  between  the  two  corn  rows  grow- 
ing on  the  division  strip  between  plots  one  and  two  and  in  all  similar  places. 

The  border  rows  around  the  plots  will  be  harvested  and  removed,  but 
as  a rule  will  not  be  weighed.  As  a regular  practice  only  the  plot  rows  will 
be  weighed  and  recorded. 

In  planting  series  200  and  600  the  oats  are  drilled  across  the  entire 
strip,  iy2  rods  wide.  At  harvest  time  the  oats  growing  on  the  borders 
around  every  plot  will  be  harvested  first  and  removed,  then  the  plots  proper 
will  be  harvested,  removed,  weighed  and  recorded.  In  seeding  the  oat  plots, 
a 5-hoe  drill,  making  drills  8 inches  apart,  is  used.  Five  times  across  the 
plot  makes  192  inches  between  the  outside  drill  rows,  while  the  plot  is  198 
inches.  In  other  words,  the  outside  drill  rows  are  within  3 inches  of  the 
plot  line.  One  drill  width  is  seeded  on  the  borders  for  protection.  This 
leaves  an  unseeded  strip  through  the  middle  of  each  division  strip  about  40 
inches  wide. 


Application  of  Fertilizer. 

Manure. 

For  the  initial  application  of  the  fertilizers,  manure  is  applied  at  the 
rate  of  8 tons  per  acre  on  series  500;  6 tons  to  the  acre  on  series  600;  4 
tons  to  the  acre  on  series  700,  and  2 tons  to  the  acre  on  series  800.  For 
the  next  three  years  8 tons  are  to  be  applied  to  each  acre  on  the  series 
where  clover  is  to  be  plowed  under  for  corn  and  always  after  the  manure 
is  to  be  applied  on  the  clover  ground  to  be  plowed  for  corn,  but  at  the  rate 
in  proportion  to  the  crops  which  have  been  produced  upon  the  plot  during 
the  preceding  four  years  and  apply  manure  in  quantity  equal  to  the  air- 
dried  weight  of  the  total  crops  produced.  It  is  easily  practicable  to  produce 
that  proportion  of  manure  in  a live-stock  system  of  farming,  even  where 
some  grain  is  sold.  It  is  to  be  expected,  of  course,  that  wheat  and  clover 
seed  and  possibly  corn  and  oats  will  be  sold  from  live-stock  farms. 

Phosphorous. 

For  phosphorus  on  plots  4 and  5 initial  applications  of  one  ton  to  the 
acre  of  rock  phosphate  were  made  on  series  100  and  500;  1,750  pounds  to 
the  acre  on  series  200  and  600;  1,500  pounds  on  series  300  and  700;  1,250 
pounds  on  series  400  and  800.  Afterward  1,000  pounds  of  rock  phosphate 
are  to  be  applied  to  the  clover  ground  to  be  plowed  under  for  corn. 


14 


Potassium. 

For  potassium  on  plot  5 initial  applications  of  400  pounds  to  the  acre 
of  kainit  were  made  on  series  100  and  500;  300  pounds  to  the  acre  on  series 
200  and  600;  200  pounds  to  the  acre  on  series  300  and  700  and  100  pounds  to 
the  acre  on  series  400  and  800.  After  the  first  year  400  pounds  to  the  acre 
are  to  be  applied  on  the  clover  ground  and  the  clover,  kainit  and  phosphate 
are  to  be  plowed  under  for  corn. 


Lime. 

For  lime  initial  applications  of  one  ton  to  the  acre  of  ground  limestone 
were  applied  on  series  300  and  700;  % of  a ton  on  series  400  and  800;  ^ a 
ton  on  series  100  and  500;  % of  a ton  on  series  200  and  600.  Afterward  each 
year  one  ton  to  the  acre  is  to  be  applied  on  the  land  after  the  oat  stubble  has 
been  plowed  for  wheat,  working  the  limestone  into  the  surface  soil  in  the 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed  for  wheat  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  clover 
which  is  to  be  seeded  for  the  following  spring.  Kainit  is  used  instead  of 
potassium,  since  there  is  furnished  naturally  in  the  soil  a sufficient  supply 
of  the  element. 


Permanent  Corners. 

Permanent  gas  pipe  stakes,  fourteen  in  number,  are  set  in  the  exact 
line  of  the  outer  plot  lines,  and  exactly  one  rod  from  the  corner  of  the  plot 
proper.  These  gas  pipes  are  1%  inches  in  diameter  and  thirty  (30)  inches 
long,  and  they  are  set  down  so  that  the  top  of  the  stake  comes  just  to  the 
level  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  so  a mower  may  be  run  over  them.  In 
addition  to  these  permanent  stakes,  other  temporary  stakes  are  placed  to 
aid  in  determining  the  exact  plot  lines  when  seeding  and  harvesting. 


THE  RELATION  OF  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  TO  AGRICULTURE. 

It  is  very  evident  to  any  one  who  has  ever  traversed  even  a part  of  the 
territory  known  as  the  Military  Tract  in  Illinois,  that  the  leading  industry 
is  agriculture.  Surrounded  as  it  is  by  a rich  agricultural  district,  the 
Military  Tract  State  Normal  School  ought  to  be  and  is  interested  very 
much  in  the  general  subject  of  agriculture.  The  natural  environment  sug- 
gests agricultural  instruction,  the  young  men  and  women  are  many  of  them 
anxious  to  study  the  new  subject,  and  the  school  desires  to  encourage  such 
training.  Although  it  is  only  recently  that  any  attention  has  been  given 
to  this  work,  something  has  been  accomplished  already  in  a very  substantial 
way. 

In  the  spring  of  1907,  at  a regular  meeting  of  the  board,  the  Trustees 
expressed  in  a permanent  way  the  desirability  of  offering  instruction  in 
agriculture  by  setting  aside  a tract  of  land  on  the  school  campus  about  two 
acres  in  area.  Upon  this  tract  are  located  the  Soil  Experiment  Field  con- 
taining forty  experimental  plots  hereafter  described,  and  the  School  Garden. 
It  is  obvious  from  the  general  plan  that  every  grade  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest  shall  have  instruction  in  the  most  practical  way. 


15 


The  Normal  School  is  very  fortunate  in  its  position  in  the  system  of 
schools.  There  is  no  department  in  the  scheme  of  education  which  occupies 
a place  as  favorable  for  agricultural  instruction.  Its  sole  function  is  the 
training  of  teachers  for  the  elementary  and  secondary  grades.  A large  per- 
centage of  the  graduates  begin  teaching  in  the  rural  and  village  schools 
where  previous  agricultural  training  becomes  effective  in  the  schools  where 
instruction  in  agriculture  is  most  desired.  Teachers  who  are  prepared  in 
the  University,  as  a rule,  seek  positions  in  the  larger  cities.  The  Normal 
School  with  its  efficient  corps  of  instructors,  a complete  laboratory  equip- 
ment, soil  experiment  plots,  school  garden,  and  the  further  fact  that  a large 
part  of  the  student  body  comes  from  the  farm  and  after  graduation  re- 
turns to  the  country  and  village  schools,  is  the  ideal  school  in  which  to 
prepare  teachers  of  agriculture. 

Courses  in  agriculture  are  being  rapidly  introduced  in  the  programs  of 
study  in  the  rural  and  village  schools.  This  change  in  the  program  re- 
quires special  preparation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Unfortunately,  the 
conditions  are  such  in  some  instances  that  teachers  are  compelled  to  teach 
the  subject  without  preparation.  The  circumstance  is  brought  about  by 
the  demand  being  greater  than  the  supply.  The  schools  are  unable  to  pre- 
pare teachers  in  sufficient  numbers.  The  situation  is  very  suggestive  to 
candidates  entering  the  work  of  a teacher  and  who  intend  to  make  it  their 
occupation  for  life.  Salaries  are  much  higher  and  the  tenure  of  position 
is  nearly  always  certain  when  the  teacher  desires  it.  Two  instances  occur 
at  this  moment  where  two  teachers  each  had  an  offer  of  an  increase  of 
salary  of  $25  per  month  by  three  different  school  boards,  one  of  which  was 
the  local  board.  As  another  instance  of  the  recognition  of  the  value  of  in- 
struction in  agriculture,  the  local  board  papered  the  school  walls,  pur- 
chased maps,  library  books,  installed  a heating  system,  and  volunteered 
their  services  when  other  improvements  were  needed.  No  Detter  attitude 
on  the  part  of  the  school  board  could  be  desired.  It  would  seem  that  in- 
struction in  agriculture  will  prove  to  be  the  means  of  engendering  a more 
healthful  school  spirit  in  the  rural  schools  and  make  the  schools  more 
serviceable  to  the  community. 

DRAINAGE. 

The  value  of  proper  drainage  is  likely  to  be  underestimated.  It  is  us- 
ually supposed  to  have  one  benefit  only,  which  is  the  removal  of  the  excess, 
or  gravitational  water.  Of  course,  this  is  very  essential,  but  it  is  one  of 
a number  of  benefits  appearing  in  a soil  after  tile  drains  have  been  laid. 

When  the  soil  is  wet  with  an  excess  of  water,  the  soil  particles  tend  to 
float  and  are  therefore  kept  at  too  great  a distance  apart  making  a soft 
mass.  As  the  water  is  removed  in  draining  the  film  of  moisture  around 
the  particle  becomes  thinner  and  the  force  of  capillarity  draws  the  par- 
ticles closer  together,  making  a firmer  soil  and  one  which  is  less  likely  to 
wash.  Soils  are  easily  “puddled”  when  in  a wet  condition,  forming  a soil 
structure  poorly  adapted  to  plant  growth. 

A well  drained  soil  in  time  forms  granules  of  the  fine  particles  producing 
a condition  known  as  good  “tilth,”  especially  is  this  true  when  there  is  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  organic  matter  and  calcium  carbonate.  In  a wet  soil 
the  granules,  or  crumb-like  structure,  are  broken  up,  making  a condition  in 


16 


which  plant  food  is  more  difficult  to  liberate  and  in  which  the  water  perco- 
lates less  freely.  A granulated  soil  always  drains  more  freely. 

Good  aeration  is  a very  important  factor.  Air  cannot  move  through  a 
soil  where  the  pore  spaces  are  filled  with  water.  The  presence  of  air  in 
the  lower  strata  is  necessary  for  the  best  physical  condition,  chemical  re- 
actions, and  for  the  respiratory  functions  of  the  low  forms  of  organisms 
present  in  all  fertile  soils.  Some  species  of  bacteria  can  live  without  the 
direct  presence  of  oxygen,  but  others  must  have  it.  Oxygen  is  required  also 
for  the  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter. 

A wet  soil  is  proverbially  known  as  a “cold  soil.”  If  the  water  table 
is  not  lowered  rapidly  by  good  drainage,  it  may  require  weeks  of  time 
before  the  soil  may  be  in  a condition  for  preparation  and  plant  growth.  A 
free  movement  of  air  through  the  pore  spaces  tends  to  warm  the  soil  to  a 
temperature  suitable  for  the  germination  of  seeds  and  consequent  growth. 
If  the  water  is  left  to  be  removed  by  evaporation,  the  absorption  of  heat 
from  the  soil  is  enormous.  It  has  been  calculated  that  966.6  heat  units  are 
necessary  to  evaporate  one  pound  of  water.  The  loss  of  one  or  two  weeks’ 
time  in  the  spring  may  delay  the  maturing  of  the  corn  to  a time  when  there 
is  danger  of  loss  by  damaging  frosts. 

It  is  known  that  there  is  a definite  relation  existing  between  maximum 
crop  yields  and  the  presence  of  certain  groups  of  bacteria.  This  is  more 
largely  true  of  the  leguminous  plants  which  depend  upon  nitrifying  bac- 
teria to  a great  extent  for  a supply  of  nitrates.  Unless  these  bacteria 
develop  in  sufficient  numbers,  the  plant  growth  is  limited  and  succeeding 
crop  yields  are  reduced.  These  species  cannot  thrive  in  a saturated  soil. 
The  organic  matter  which  forms  their  food  is  not  decomposed  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  furnish  a necessary  part  of  the  nourishment  for  the  crops. 
Indirectly  there  is  a lessening  of  the  liberation  of  the  mineral  plant  food 
due  to  a lack  of  carbonic  acid  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  organic 
matter. 

The  depth  of  the  root  zone  is  increased  in  a well-drained  soil.  In 
periods  of  drought  the  crops  are  better  able  to  overcome  its  severity  when 
the  roots  penetrate  the  deeper  strata.  If  the  root  zone  is  shallow  the  forag- 
ing range  is  limited,  which  always  lessens  crop  yields. 

The  Soil  Experiment  Field  is  tile-drained.  A main  runs  parallel  to  the 
border  of  the  field  about  one  and  one-half  rods  from  the  ends  of  the  series. 
Four  laterals  connect  with  the  main,  one  lateral  between  each  pair  of  series. 

MANURE. 

The  organic  matter  in  virgin  soils  is  derived  from  the  slow  accumulation 
of  decaying  vegetable  tissues,  principally.  A very  small  percentage  is  pro- 
duced from  animal  tissues,  but  since  this  is  so  small,  the  organic  matter 
is  generally  considered  to  be  of  vegetable  origin.  In  a state  of  nature, 
plants  after  maturity,  die  and  their  dead  tissues  by  means  of  various 
agencies,  become  incorporated  in  the  soil  to  a greater  or  less  extent,  depend- 
ing upon  conditions.  The  portions  of  plants  embodied  in  the  soil  after  a 
period  of  decay  form  a substance  known  as  “humus.”  Humus  is  really 
the  name  of  the  last  stages  of  vegetable  decay.  Whenever  the  decay  of 
organic  matter  has  proceeded  so  far  that  it  cannot  be  identified  as  being 


17 

some  definite  organic  structure,  either  plant  or  animal,  then  it  is  said  to 
be  humus. 

It  is  evident  then  that  the  most  rapid  way  of  increasing  the  organic 
matter  in  the  soil  would  he  to  plow  under  the  entire  crop  at  maturity.  But 
since  the  farmer  must  sell  a portion,  or  feed  a portion  of  each  crop  in  order 
to  get  money  for  his  labor,  no  farmer  could  follow  such  practice  exclusively. 
The  produce  of  the  land  is  thus  divided  into  two  portions,  the  salable  and 
unsalable,  or  the  part  which  is  used  for  feed  and  the  part  which  cannot  be 
used.  The  portions  which  cannot  be  either  sold  or  fed,  naturally  belong  to 
the  soil  and  when  removed  in  harvesting  should  afterward  be  returned. 
Manure,  which  is  composed  of  the  portions  of  plant  tissues  remaining  after 
digestion  by  the  animal,  should  be  returned  to  the  soil.  Unfortunately, 
previous  methods  of  farming  have  not  provided  for  the  total  return  of  crop 
residues  and  manure.  Consequently,  agricultural  lands  have  suffered 
through  impoverishment,  which  is  very  manifest  in  lower  crop  yields  than 
the  yields  produced  on  virgin  soils.  All  crop  residues  as  straw,  corn  stalks, 
clover  chaff  and  damaged  hay  crops  should  not  be  burned,  but  returned  to 
the  land  and  plowed  under  to  furnish  organic  matter.  All  manure  produced 
from  grains  and  edible  portions  of  the  plant,  together  with  the  bedding 
used,  should  be  returned.  Great  care  must  he  exercised  in  handling  manure 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  plant  food  which  it  contains. 

Manure  represents  the  difference  between  the  total  amount  of  feed- 
stuff used  in  feeding  and  the  part  removed  by  digestion  to  nourish  the 
animal.  It  is  never  possible  to  recover  as  much  plant  food  in  the  manure 
as  is  contained  in  the  total  amount  of  feed  used.  The  fact  that  a portion 
of  the  feed  is  indigestible  does  not  detract  from  the  general  statement.  The 
portion  of  plant  substance  removed  by  digestion  to  support  the  animal 
should  be  replaced  by  some  cheaper  substance  in  the  form  of  commercial 
fertilizer  containing  the  same  kind  and  amount  of  the  chemical  elements 
removed  from  the  feed  in  the  process  of  digestion.  This  practice  is  known 
as  “reinforcing  manure.”  Some  form  of  phosphate  and  potassium  salt  are 
conceded  to  be  the  best  in  this  connection.  Other  substances  are  used  as 
absorbents. 

Manure  is  a natural  fertilizer  and  the  one  most  universally  used.  The 
circumstances  under  which  it  is  produced  makes  it  impossible  to  be  pro- 
duced in  sufficient  quantity  to  properly  fertilize  every  acre  of  land  in  culti- 
vation. This  situation  makes  it  necessary  for  the  farmer  to  purchase 
some  form  of  commercial  fertilizer  either  directly  or  else  indirectly  in  feed. 
Furthermore,  manure  is  not  a balanced  food  for  plants  when  applied  with- 
out being  reinforced,  or  in  connection  with  other  fertilizers.  The  average 
analysis  of  a large  number  of  samples  of  manure  show  that  it  contains 
about  10  pounds  of  nitrogen,  2 pounds  of  the  element  phosphorus,  and  8 
pounds  of  the  element  potassium  in  a ton  of  2,000  pounds.  This  statement 
applies  to  fresh  farm  manure,  not  the  well-rotted  manure  commonly 
thought  of.  The  element  deficient  in  the  largest  proportion  is  phosphorus. 
Whenever  manure  is  treated  with  a form  of  fertilizer  containing  the  ele- 
ment phosphorus,  a marked  increase  in  fertilizing  value  is  always  observed. 

When  manure  is  left  exposed  to  the  weather  in  the  warmer  months,  it 
loses  plant  food  very  rapidly,  sometimes  as  much  as  one-third  to  one-half 
of  the  original  amount.  At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  manure  was 


18 


exposed  from  January  to  April,  in  1,000-pound  piles  and  it  lost  one-third  of 
its  value.  When  the  months  of  the  year  and  the  length  of  time  exposed 
are  considered,  one  may  get  some  idea  of  the  loss  due  to  weathering. 
Ordinarily,  manure  allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  open  barnyard  loses  one- 
half  of  its  value.  Stall  manure  is  worth  twice  as  much  if  applied  im- 
mediately from  the  stall  as  it  would  be  if  exposed  to  the  weather  for  one- 
half  year  and  then  applied.  The  custom  of  leaving  manure  piled  against 
the  side  of  the  barn  several  months  in  the  year  before  spreading,  is  very 
wasteful.  It  should  be  spread  upon  the  land  as  fast  as  it  is  produced.  The 
habit  of  unloading  it  in  piles  and  allowing  it  to  remain  several  weeks  before 
spreading  is  a poor  method  because  most  of  the  soluble  portion  is  absorbed 
by  the  soil  under  the  pile,  thus  preventing  an  equal  distribution  of  all  of 
the  plant  food.  According  to  government  statistics,  enough  plant  food  is 
lost  through  careless  methods  of  handling  to  equal  about  $100  for  each  farm 
every  year.  A large  amount  of  the  nitrogen  and  potassium  is  contained 
in  the  liquid  excrement  which  is  lost  in  great  part  through  the  lack  of 
having  a sufficient  quantity  of  absorbent  bedding  in  the  form  of  straw  or 
other  plant  residues. 

The  fertilizing  value  of  manure  is  best  shown,  probably,  by  the  results 
of  the  Rothamstead  Experiment  Field,  England.  On  one  piece  of  land 
manure  was  applied  continuously  for  more  than  fifty  years,  on  another  for 
twenty  years  only,  and  on  another  no  manure  was  applied.  On  the  land 
manured  continuously,  the  crop  yields  were  maintained.  On  the  land  ma- 
nured for  twenty  years  only,  the  crop  yields  became  gradually  lower,  but 
were  twice  as  large  as  those  on  the  unmanured  land.  On  the  land  where 
no  manure  was  applied  the  crop  yields  became  gradually  lower  through  the 
entire  period.  The  rate  of  application  was  nearly  sixteen  tons  per  acre, 
which  is  much  greater  than  the  average  farmer  can  produce  for  the  entire 
farm. 


LIME  AND  ITS  USES. 

The  term  “lime”  as  it  is  commonly  used  is  somewhat  confusing.  The 
different  forms  should  be  clearly  understood  and  then  used  correctly.  The 
expression  “Lime”  may  mean  any  one  of  three,  possibly  four,  forms.  “Caustic 
lime,”  “quick  lime,”  “burned  lime,”  “stone  lime,”  “unslaked  lime”  are  dif- 
ferent expressions  in  common  usage  for  one  and  the  same  form,  calcium 
oxid  (CaO).  “Hydrated  lime,”  “slaked  lime,”  “agricultural  lime”  are  used 
to  mean  calcium  hydrate  (Ca(OH2)  ).  There  is  probably  no  confusion 
when  the  term  “ground  limestone”  is  used  to  mean  calcium  carbonate, 
(CaCOs),  Calcium  sulphate  (CaSCh),  is  rarely  confused  with  the  other 
forms,  because  it  usually  goes  by  the  name  of  land  plaster.  It  is  always 
preferable  to  use  the  chemical  name  for  the  form  under  consideration. 

When  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOs)  is  burned  in  the  kiln,  the  heat  sets 
free  carbon  dioxid  (CO2)  forming  calcium  oxid  (CaO).  In  burning  100 
pounds  of  calcium  carbonate,  it  is  reduced  in  weight  to  56  pounds  of  calcium 
oxid  by  the  liberation  of  carbon  dioxid.  If  the  56  pounds  of  calcium  oxid 
be  exposed  to  moisture  either  by  the  addition  of  water,  or  moisture  in  the 


19 


soil,  the  weight  is  increased  to  74  pounds,  forming  calcium  hydrate.  When 
the  74  pounds  of  calcium  hydrate  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  or  to  the 
soil  air  when  applied  to  the  land,  it  slowly  absorbs  carbon  dioxid  forming 
calcium  carbonate  equalling  100  pounds  in  weight,  which  is  the  same  in 
weight  as  the  original  quantity  before  burning  in  the  kiln.  The  foregoing 
statement  explains  what  changes  have  taken  place  when  “lime”  is  “air 
slaked.”  The  same  changes  occur  when  calcium  oxid  is  applied  to  the  soil. 
These  facts  are  significant  in  relation  to  agriculture. 

Calcium  oxid  may  be  used  upon  the  soil,  but  its  use  should  be  consid- 
ered in  relation  to  its  properties.  Its  chief  property  is  its  caustic  effect 
upon  organic  substances.  Because  of  this  property,  it  is  disagreeable  to 
both  man  and  his  team,  being  very  irritating  especially  to  the  eyes  and 
nostrils  on  windy  days.  It  is  very  destructive  to  the  organic  matter  in  the 
soil,  and  since  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  the  humus  contents  of  the  soil, 
good  judgment  must  be  exercised  in  its  use.  It  has  been  demonstrated  on 
experiment  plots  that  the  amount  of  organic  matter  destroyed  during  a 
four-year  rotation  is  a little  more  than  the  equivalent  of  eight  tons  of 
manure.  When  it  is  realized  that  in  the  usual  farm  practice  it  is  the  ex- 
ception to  find  a farmer  who  applies  manure  at  the  rate  of  eight  tons  per 
acre  in  each  rotation,  it  is  easily  understood  why  the  organic  content  of 
the  soil  is  rapidly  depleted  when  continuous  applications  of  calcium  oxid 
are  made.  These  results  are  more  obvious  in  the  East  where  the  use  of 
this  form  of  lime  is  more  prevalent. 

Calcium  hydrate  is  caustic  in  its  effect,  but  is  not  so  pronounced.  It  is 
being  substituted  for  calcium  oxid,  and  commonly  goes  by  the  name  of 
“agricultural  lime.”  The  effect  upon  the  organic  matter  is  not  so  severe,  but 
it  is  quite  appreciable. 

Calcium  carbonate  is  a natural  rock  and  when  finely  ground,  is  more 
suitable  for  agricultural  purposes  than  either  of  the  other  forms.  If  the 
particles  vary  in  size  from  dust  to  pieces  no  larger  than  a grain  of  wheat, 
the  ground  limestone  is  best  suited  for  soils.  Mistakes  have  been  made  by 
purchasing  screenings  of  larger  particles  which  require  too  much  time  for 
disintegration.  Persons  applying  screenings  are,  as  a rule,  disappointed 
with  results  which  are  delayed  too  long.  Before  the  introduction  of  rock 
grinding  machinery,  calcium  oxid  and  calcium  hydrate  have  had  the  advan- 
tage by  being  in  a more  finely  divided  physical  condition.  Ground  lime- 
stone has  the  advantage  of  being  more  pleasant  to  handle,  being  free  from 
irritating  effects.  Its  action  upon  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  more 
desirable.  Ground  limestone  is  the  form  chosen  for  use  upon  the  Soil 
Experiment  Field,  as  it  seems  to  be  the  best  form  when  all  factors  are  con- 
sidered, and  it  may  be  said  that  the  experiment  stations  of  the  United 
States  are  favoring  its  use  quite  generally. 

The  neutralizing  effects  upon  acid  soils  of  each  of  the  three  forms  may 
be  stated  as  follows:  1,000  pounds  of  calcium  oxid  is  equivalent  to  1,321 
pounds  of  calcium  hydrate,  or  1785  pounds  of  calcium  carbonate.  In  other 
words,  about  1 V3  times  as  much  calcium  hydrate,  or  about  2 times  as  much 
calcium  carbonate  should  be  applied  to  get  the  same  effect  as  the  customary 
amount  of  calcium  oxid  applied.  The  average  price  of  calcium  oxid  is  $5.50 
per  ton,  while  ground  limestone  is  $2.00  per  ton.  Although  the  amount 


20 


of  ground  limestone  required  is  nearly  double,  this  is  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  low  cost. 

The  following  table  of  results  reported  by  the  Pennsylvania  Station 
resulting  from  a twenty-year  test  shows  the  comparative  value  agriculturally 
of  burned  lime  and  ground  limestone.  The  table  is  quoted  from  Hopkins 
Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture.  While  the  evidence  in  itself  is 
convincing,  other  data  of  like  significance  has  been  secured  which 
strengthens  it. 

Twenty  Years’  Produce  Per  Acre. 


Soil  1 

Treatment 

CORN 

OATS 

WHEAT 

Hay 
Tons 
19  Yr.  • 

Grain 

Bushels 

Stover 

Tons 

Grain 

Bushels 

Straw 

Tons 

Grain 

Bushels 

Straw 

Tons 

None 

819 

18.8 

678 

14.3 

279 

13.2 

24.9 

Burned 

lime  

699 

16.5 

617 

17.8 

318 

14.6 

23.6 

Ground 

limestone . . 

798 

18.6 

733 

20.4 

1 331 

16.6 

29.2 

Applying  the  Limestone. 

The  limestone  is  spread  upon  the  wheat  ground  just  previous  to  the  first 
harrowing.  Lines  are  run  from  the  permanent  corner  posts  in  the  same 
manner  that  the  plots  are  located  before  harvesting  the  grain.  When  the 


Applying  the  Limestone 


position  of  the  plots  has  been  determined  the  limestone  is  spread  evenly 
over  the  exact  plot.  In  no  instance  is  any  of  the  limestone  spread  upon 
any  part  of  the  protective  border  strips.  The  same  is  true  when  any  of 
the  fertilizing  substances  are  applied.  Care  is  exercised  when  harrowing  to 
prevent  any  of  the  soil  from  being  dragged  from  one  plot  to  another.  If 
the  harrow  teeth  be  set  at  the  proper  angle  the  soil  is  shifted  very  little  in 
a horizontal  direction.  If  the  harrow  were  set  “to  drag,”  clods  and  loose 
earth  would  accumulate  and  the  soil  from  one  plot  would  be  carried  over  to 
another.  This  would  disturb  the  treatment  somewhat.  Three  or  four 
times  over  with  the  harrow  have  been  sufficient  to  pulverize  and  level  the 
soil.  The  rainfall  during  the  time  that  the  ground  lay  fallow  has  packed 


21 


and  firmed  the  ground.  The  more  thorough  the  pulverization  the  better  is 
the  limestone  mixed  in.  Repeated  cultivation  tends  to  carry  the  limestone 
deeper.  The  purpose  of  applying  it  at  this  time  in  the  rotation  is  to  correct 
the  acidity  of  the  soil  for  the  benefit  of  the  clover  which  is  seeded  in  the 
wheat  the  following  spring. 

In  the  illustration  which  shows  the  method  of  spreading  the  limestone, 
the  man  employed  to  prepare  the  seed  bed  is  making  the  application.  When- 
ever possible,  students  who  are  planning  to  receive  special  instruction  in  the 
subject  make  the  application  under  the  direction  of  the  instructor.  It  is 
well  to  say  in  this  connection  that  every  operation  on  the  experiment  field 
is  performed  when,  and  only  when,  the  instructor  is  there  to  direct  it. 
This  measure  is  necessary  to  prevent  errors. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

There  is  no  element  of  plant  food  more  important  than  phosphorus. 
Nearly  all  soils  are  more  or  less  deficient  in  this  element.  Whenever  it  is 
applied  to  the  soil  an  increase  in  crop  yields  is  invariably  the  result.  A 
normal,  fertile  soil  should  contain  2,000  pounds  of  the  element  phosphorus 
per  acre  in  the  first  seven  inches  of  depth,  or  the  part  usually  turned  by 
the  plow.  Pew  soils,  however,  contain  more  than  1,500  pounds  and  many 
contain  an  amount  fewer  than  1,000  pounds.  It  is  always  safe  and  nearly 
always  profitable  to  apply  it  to  any  soil. 

There  are  several  forms  for  sale  upon  the  market,  chief  of  which  are 
ground  raw  rock  phosphate,  acid  phosphate  and  ground  bone  meal,  either 
raw  or  steamed.  Other  forms  are  comparatively  little  used,  owing  to  their 
scant  supply  and  adaptability. 

Ground  rock  phosphate  is  coming  into  more  general  use  recently.  It 
has  been  objected  to  largely  on  the  ground  of  its  insolubility.  Recent  inves- 
tigations have  shown  that  it  may  be  made  soluble  by  the  use  of  sufficient 
quantities  of  organic  matter  in  the  form  of  manure,  or  leguminous  crops. 
If  the  ground  rock  phosphate  is  applied  directly  to  either  of  these  organic 
substances  in  such  a way  that  there  is  physical  contact  between  them,  the 
decaying  organic  matter  liberates  the  phosphorus  from  the  insoluble  ground 
rock  phosphate.  It  would  be  a mistake,  of  course,  to  plow  under  the  organic 
matter  and  apply  the  ground  rock  phosphate  to  the  freshly  plowed  soil,  thus 
separating  them  by  five  or  six  inches  of  earth.  At  some  subsequent  time, 
however,  the  phosphorus  may  be  liberated  by  another  application  of  manure 
or  in  turning  under  a leguminous  crop.  This  has  occurred  in  more  than 
one  instance.  Rock  phosphate  occurs  in  all  soils  and  is  the  natural  source 
of  the  element  phosphorus  in  virgin  soils  when  crops  were  grown  without 
the  use  of  farm  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers.  It  is  the  cheapest  source 
of  phosphatic  fertilizers,  costing  about  $8.00  per  ton,  in  carload  lots.  Taking 
into  consideration  the  fact  that  it  is  a natural  fertilizer  and  its  compara- 
tively low  cost,  it  is  a very  desirable  form  for  use  in  improving  the  land. 
It  has  no  tendency  to  make  the  land  sour  as  some  other  forms  have.  Ground 
rock  is  the  form  used  upon  the  Soil  Experiment  Field. 

Acid  phosphate  has  been  used  a great  deal  because  it  is  soluble  to  a 
great  extent  in  water,  and  because  it  was  thought  plants  could  not  get  the 
phosphorus,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the  insoluble  ground  rock 
phosphate  when  applied  to  the  soil.  Acid  phosphate  is  made  by  adding  an 


22 


equal  amount  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  ground  rock  phosphate  in 
most  instances,  though  bone-meal  and  other  phosphates  are  sometimes  used. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  one-half  of  the  weight  of  acid  phosphate  is 
due  to  the  sulphuric  acid  added  in  its  preparation  and  that  acid  phosphate 
contains  one-half  as  much  of  the  element  phosphorus  per  ton  as  the  ground 
rock  phosphate.  The  cost  of  acid  phosphate  is  from  $14  to  $16  per  ton, 
making  a pound  of  the  element  cost  about  four  times  as  much  as  in  the  form 
of  the  ground  rock  phosphate. 

On  soils  low  in  organic  matter,  acid  phosphate  gives  good  results  when 
applied.  It  has  given  good  results  also  when  applied  in  connection  with 
manure  and  legumes.  On  the  older  soils  it  seems  advisable  to  use  acid 
phosphate  in  order  to  secure  immediate  returns.  After  the  system  of  farm- 
ing is  well  under  way,  and  a sufficient  quantity  of  manure  and  legumes  can 
be  produced,  it  is  possible  to  substitute  ground  rock  phosphate.  On  the 
newer  corn-belt  soils  ground  rock  phosphate  has  given  excellent  results 
when  used  in  connection  with  some  form  of  decaying  organic  matter.  It 
seems  to  be  a debatable  question  among  agriculturists  which  is  the  better 
form,  but  it  is  quite  within  the  truth  to  say  that  either  form  will  produce 
good  results  when  managed  in  the  proper  way. 

Bone  meal  is  a by-product  of  the  packing  houses.  Most  of  the  bone 
meal  is  steamed,  which  removes  most  of  the  fat  and  nitrogenous  matter. 
It  is  a slow-acting  fertilizer  and  should  be  used  with  decaying  organic  mat- 
ter to  liberate  the  phosphorus.  Like  ground  rock  phosphate,  it  contains 
about  12%  per  cent  of  the  element  phosphorus.  It  is  sometimes  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  make  acid  phosphate.  In  addition  to  the  phosphorus,  hone 
meal  when  untreated  with  acid  contains  about  1%  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  Raw 
bone  meal  is  more  slowly  soluble  than  steamed  bone  meal,  because  the  fat 
acts  as  a preservative. 

The  value  of  phosphorus  is  becoming  generally  recognized.  Both  plot 
tests  and  field  demonstrations  show  that  it  lies  at  the  very  foundation  of 
successful  agriculture.  If  a soil  is  deficient  in  this  element,  neither  manure 
or  legumes  can  be  substituted  for  it  nor  can  either  be  relied  upon  to  produce 
the  highest  results.  The  following  table  quoted  from  the  Soil  Report  No.  2 
of  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  shows  the  results  of  ten  years  on  the 
Bloomington  Experiment  Field.  The  evidence  of  the  data  presented  is 
convincing. 


Yield 

Yield 

Increase 

Value  of 

Without 

with 

for 

Increase 

Year 

Crop  Grown 

Phosphorus 

Phosphorus 

Phosphorus 

Per  Acre 

1902 

Corn,  bu 

37.00 

41.70 

4.70 

$ 1.64 

1903 

Corn,  bu 

60.30 

73.00 

12.70 

4.44 

1904 

Oats,  bu 

60.80 

72.70 

11.90 

3.57 

1905 

Wheat,  bu 

28.80 

39.20 

10.40 

7.28 

1906 

Clover,  tons 

.58 

1.65 

1.07 

6.42 

1907 

Corn,  bu 

63.10 

82.10 

19.00 

6.65 

1908 

Corn,  bu 

35.30 

47.50 

12.20 

4.27 

1909 

Oats,  bu 

53.60 

63.80 

10.20 

3.06 

1910 

Clover,  tons  

1.09 

4.21 

3.12 

18.72 

1911 

Wheat,  bu 

22.50 

57.60 

35.10 

24.57 

Total  value  of  increase  in  ten  years $80.62 

Total  cost  of  phosphorus  in  ten  years 25.00 


Total  value  of  increase  in  ten  years $80.62 

Total  cost  of  phosphorus  in  ten  years 25.00 


Net  prot  in  ten  years 


$55.62 


23 


POTASSIUM. 

There  are  three  forms  of  potassium  fertilizers  used  as  a rule.  These 
are  potassium  chloride,  or  muriate,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  potassium  sul- 
phate, and  kainit.  Wood  ashes  contain  a small  amount  of  potassium  in  the 
form  of  potassium  carbonate,  hut  ashes  are  used  only  to  a limited  extent. 

The  principal  source  of  the  salts  is  the  Stassfurt  mines,  in  the  region 
of  the  Harz  Mountains  in  northern  Germany.  The  deposits  are  large  enough 
to  supply  the  world  at  the  present  rate  of  use  for  many  thousand  years. 
It  is  thought  that  these  beds  were  deposited  by  the  evaporation  of  sea  water 
ages  ago. 

Muriate  is  composed  chiefly  of  potassium  chloride  and  runs  about  80% 
pure.  This  salt  contains  about  42%  of  the  element  potassium.  It  is  made 
from  the  deposits  of  the  Stassfurt  region  and  has  common  salt  as  an  im- 
purity. When  applied  as  a fertilizer  it  is  sometimes  said  to  have  an  in- 
jurious effect  on  tobacco,  sugar-beets,  and  potatoes,  if  applied  in  large 
amounts.  It  is  unquestionably  beneficial  in  its  effects  upon  the  cereals, 
legumes,  and  grasses. 

Kainit  is  composed  of  a mixture  of  at  least  three  substances  and  it  is 
applied  in  a crude  state.  About  one-third  of  its  weight  is  sodium  chloride. 
There  is  about  10%  of  the  element  potassium  in  kainit.  In  the  ordinary 
soil  which  contains  a high  percentage  of  potassium,  it  is  applied  for  its 
stimulating  effect  rather  than  as  a plant  food.  This  form  of  potassium 
fertilizer  is  used  on  the  Soil  Experiment  Field.  On  muck  or  peat  soils, 
where  there  is  a large  deficiency  of  potassium,  muriate  is  generally  used  as 
the  most  desirable  form. 

Potassium  sulphate  is  made  from  kainit  and  is  about  95%  pure.  The 
amount  of  the  element  potassium,  like  muriate,  is  42%,  on  the  average.  It 
is  said  to  be  free  from  injury  to  crops. 


CORN. 


“A  man  puts  some  ashes  in  a hill  of  corn  and  thereby  doubles  its  yield. 
Then  he  says,  ‘My  ashes  have  I turned  into  corn.’  Weak  from  his  labor,  he 
eats  of  his  corn,  and  new  life  comes  to  him.  Again,  he  says,  ‘I  have  changed 
my  corn  into  a man.’  This  also  he  feels  to  be  the  truth.” 

JOHN  DARBY. 

According  to  the  plan  of  rotation  the  corn  succeeds  the  clover.  Before 
the  clover  stubble  is  plowed  in  the  spring  the  students  compute  the  various 
amounts  of  fertilizers  required  by  the  several  plots  in  the  corn  series.  The 
plan  provides  further  that  manure,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  are  the  plant 
foods  to  be  applied  at  this  time  in  the  rotation,  and  that  they  shall  be 
spread  upon  the  clover  stubble  before  the  ground  is  broken.  Good  stable 
manure  which  has  not  been  exposed  to  the  weather  is  the  form  chosen. 
Phosphorus  in  the  form  of  finely  ground  raw  rock  phosphate  carrying  121%j% 
of  the  element  phosphorus  is  used.  Potassium  is  applied  in  the  form  of 
kainit.  The  exact  plots  are  located  by  measurements  from  the  permanent 
corner  posts  and  lines  are  stretched  from  the  established  plot  corners. 
These  lines  define  the  boundaries  of  the  plots  while  the  treatments  are  being 
applied.  The  ground  is  then  plowed,  turning  under  the  fertilizers.  It  is 


24 


thought  to  be  the  best  practice  to  spread  the  raw  rock  phosphate  upon  the 
manure,  because  the  decaying  vegetable  matter  in  the  manure  liberates  the 
plant  food  in  the  rock  phosphate.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  rock  phos- 
phate is  insoluble  and  hence  the  phosphorus  is  not  available  as  a plant  food. 
Also,  it  is  thought  that  corn  is  the  best  crop  in  the  rotation  to  follow  an 
application  of  strong  stable  manure. 

The  Seed  Test. 

In  every  instance  the  seed  has  been  tested  previous  to  planting.  Reid’s 
Yellow  Dent  has  been  chosen  as  a variety 
well  suited  to  the  type  of  soil  on  the  ex- 
periment field.  The  Experiment  Station 
at  Urbana,  Illinois,  furnished  a sufficient 
quantity  of  pure  bred  seed.  Although 
the  corn  was  tested  before  it  was  sent 
from  the  Experiment  Station,  the  stu- 
dents were  required  to  make  a second 
test  for  the  purpose  of  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  the  method.  The  results 
of  one  part  of  the  test  may  be  seen  in 
the  illustration.  Afterward,  when  the 
corn  germinated  in  the  field,  there  was 
not  one  hill  missing.  There  were  a few 
hills  with  only  two  stalks — three  kernels 
were  planted  in  each  hill.  Similar  results 
have  been  obtained  for  three  years,  but 
this  year  the  stand  was  imperfect,  which 
was  due  to  moles  and  not  the  seed  corn. 

Corn-Root  Aphis. 

Probably  no  other  insect  pest  is  so  destructive  to  corn  as  the  corn  root- 
aphis.  It  is  a greenish,  soft-bodied  insect  and  is  commonly  known  as  a 
plant  louse.  This  particular  species  attacks  the  young  roots  of  growing 
corn,  sucking  large  quantities  of  sap  from  the  young  plant  soon  after 
germination,  and  continues  its  injuries  until  late  in  the  season.  The  infested 
plant  suffers  much  from  this  pest  and  in  some  instances  dies  before  maturing. 

Were  the  corn  root-aphis  dependent  upon  its  own  activities,  little  injury 
would  be  done.  With  it  there  is  associated  a species  of  ant  known  as  the 
corn-field  ant,  upon  which  the  aphis  depends  for  every  want,  apparently. 
The  ant  jealously  cares  for  the  eggs  of  the  corn  root-aphis  and  places  the 
young  aphids  upon  the  roots  of  the  corn  plants.  As  a reward  for  this  ser- 
vice the  corn  root-aphis  excretes  a sweet  fluid  from  its  body,  which  the  ant 
eagerly  laps.  Neither  insect  of  itself  is  injurious,  but  the  two  associated  are 
very  destructive,  especially  during  the  first  six  weeks  after  germination. 

No  perfect  means  of  controlling  these  insects  has  ever  been  discovered. 

Dr.  S.  A.  Forbes,  State  Entomologist,  advises  the  practice  of  deep  plow- 
ing to  the  depth  of  six  or  seven  inches,  followed  by  rolling  and  several 
thorough  diskings  to  the  same  depth.  The  object  is  to  break  up  and  scatter 
the  contents  of  the  underground  nests,  interfering  as  much  as  possible  with 
the  development  of  the  ants  and  especially  the  root-lice.  This  may  be  done 


25 


A Perfect  Ear. 


26 


in  the  fall,  but  probably  it  can  be  done  with  more  convenience  in  the  early 
spring.  The  longer  and  more  thoroughly  the  ground  is  worked  the  better 
the  results.  At  the  same  time  the  weeds  upon  which  the  root-lice  live  before 
infesting  the  young  corn  plant  will  be  destroyed.  If  the  insects’  food  is 
destroyed  and  the  nests  can  be  broken  up  repeatedly,  scattering  the  con- 
tents through  the  soil,  the  corn  will  suffer  little  damage.  Several  field  trials 
among  farmers  have  proven  the  advantage  of  this  method.  At  Galesburg, 
Illinois,  a field  which  received  the  most  careful  cultivation  in  the  preparation 
of  the  seed-bed,  yielded  28%  more  corn  than  a field  prepared  in  the  usual  way. 

When  wet  springs  will  not  permit  of  the  best  preparation,  Dr.  Forbes  sug- 
gests an  additional  treatment.  He  has  discovered  that  the  odor  of  some 
oils  is  very  objectionable  to  the  corn-field  ant.  He  says:  “These  ants  may 
be  virtually  paralyzed  and  finally  killed  by  confining  them  to  an  atmosphere 
charged  with  certain  strong-smelling  vapors,  and  if  free  to  escape  they  will 
abandon  the  places  where  these  odors  are  strong,  even  leaving  their  own 
young  to  perish  in  order  to  save  themselves.”  The  following  seems  to  be 
the  best  substance:  “Take  a hundred  pounds  of  bone-meal  for  each  acre 
of  land  to  be  treated  and  moisten  this,  by  sprinkling  and  stirring  until  the 
fluid  is  very  equally  distributed,  with  one-fourth  of  a pound  of  oil  of  tansy 
and  one  gallon  of  denatured  alcohol,  or  wood  alcohol,  whichever  may  be 
the  cheapest  and  most  convenient.  Put  this  mixture  in  the  fertilizer  dropper 
and  plant  with  the  corn.” 

Under  field  conditions  it  is  not  likely  that  this  treatment  will  kill  the 
ants,  but  it  will  act  as  a strong  repellent.  Wet  seasons  are  very  unfavorable 
to  the  development  of  these  insects,  which  is  very  fortunate  for  the  farmer. 
If  the  farmers  were  to  co-operate  in  the  use  of  the  foregoing  methods,  the 
damage  done  the  corn  crop  by  these  insects  would  be  greatly  reduced  and, 
perhaps,  the  insects  could  be  controlled.  One  farmer  acting  alone  can  do 
little  more  than  protect  his  own  crops,  yet  this  has  actually  been  done  with 
profit,  while  the  neighbors  suffered  very  much  from  these  pests. 

Each  year  the  seed  corn  used  in  seeding  the  Normal  Experiment  Plots 
has  been  treated  with  a solution  of  oil  of  lemon  and  wood  alcohol.  While 
the  plots  were  never  free  from  injury,  it  is  believed  when  they  were  com- 
pared with  growing  corn  not  similarly  treated  that  the  injury  was  con- 
siderably reduced.  To  prepare  the  oil  of  lemon  solution  one  pint  of  oil  of 
lemon  is  added  to  one  gallon  of  wood  alcohol.  Three  ounces,  or  six  table- 
spoonfuls, of  the  solution  are  mixed  with  one  gallon  of  seed  corn,  and 
thoroughly  mixed.  The  corn  is  ready  and  should  be  planted  immediately. 
The  cost  of  the  treatment  is  approximately  ten  cents  per  acre.  The  stu- 
dents in  the  class  of  agriculture  prepare  the  solution,  treat  the  corn,  and 
plant  it  in  the  experiment  plots.  These  operations  are  easily  performed 
and  make  a very  interesting  and  instructive  laboratory  exercise.  Especially 
so  when  later  they  can  observe  the  effects  upon  the  corn-field  ants  in  the 
corn  on  the  plots. 

The  corn  is  planted  in  hills  three  (3)  feet,  three  and  three-fifths  (3  3/5) 
inches  each  way.  This  distance  between  hills  permits  twenty-five  (25)  hills 
of  corn  to  be  grown  upon  each  plot.  In  checking  the  plot  previous  to  plant- 
ing, the  series  is  marked  off  with  a marker,  which  makes  three  marks  3 feet 
3 3/5  inches  apart.  The  students  made  it  as  one  of  their  exercises  in  manual 
training.  The  marker  is  light  in  weight  and  can  be  drawn  easily  by  two 


27 


students.  When  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  a little  uneven  or  cloddy,  a 
weight  is  added  to  make  the  marks  more  distinct.  In  beginning,  a line  is 
stretched  across  the  series  to  indicate  the  position  of  the  first  row  of  corn. 
In  crossing  with  the  marker,  similar  lines  are  stretched  to  locate  the  first 
row  in  each  separate  plot. 


Planting  Corn. 

The  corn,  which  has  been  tested  and  treated  with  a solution  of  oil  of 
lemon,  is  planted  in  the  old-fashioned  way.  The  girls  drop  the  kernels, — 
three  kernels  in  each  hill, — and  the  boys  follow  with  hoes,  covering  each 
hill  to  a depth  of  two  inches.  The  required  amount  of  time  to  check  the 
plots  and  plant  the  corn  is  about  ninety  minutes,  or  one  double  period.  A 
record  of  this  work  is  entered  in  their  note  books. 


Cultivating  Corn. 

It  is  advisable  to  use  a cultivator  having  small  shovels  when  stirring 
the  corn  ground.  Until  now  the  school  has  been  depending  upon  the  use  of 
the  type  of  plow  in  use  by  the  man  employed  to  do  the  labor.  Uniform  cul- 
tivation throughout  the  rotation  could  not  be  obtained  in  this  way.  It  is 
proposed  and  arrangements  have  been  made  to  purchase  a cultivator  of  a 
suitable  type  for  this  work.  Previously  it  was  thought  that  there  was  not 
enough  service  demanded  to  justify  the  purchase  of  a cultivator  at  such  a 
large  comparative  cost.  From  three  to  four  cultivations  are  enough  to  keep 
the  surface  in  good  condition.  What  is  known  as  level  shallow  cultivation 


28 


is  practised  on  the  experiment  plots.  The  illustration  shows  one  of  the 
students  crossing  the  corn  with  a single  cultivator. 


A Comparison. 


The  two  stalks  of  corn  in  the  illustration  were  grown  in  the  border 
rows  of  corn.  The  small  stalk  was  taken  from  the  check  plot  and,  since 
there  is  no  treaiment  upon  this 
plot,  it  had  every  advantage 
which  all  of  the  other  stalks 
had  and  which  was  in  this  case 
the  native  fertility  of  the  soil. 

The  other  stalk  was  taken  from 
plot  No.  5 in  the  series,  which 
had  full  treatment;  namely, 
manure,  lime,  phosphorus,  and 
potassium.  This  stalk  could 
secure  the  applied  fertilizers 
from  one  side  of  the  row  only, 
because  it  grew  in  the  border 
row.  Neither  was  it  so  good  as 
the  corn  growing  upon  the 
treated  square  rod.  Illustrative 
samples  are  rarely  taken  from 
the  border  rows,  and  they  are 
never  taken  from  treated  areas 
because  of  the  influence  it  would 
have  upon  the  yield.  The  illus- 
trative stalks  were  cut  July  21st, 

1909,  and  photographed  the  same 
day.  The  young  man  in  the  il- 
lustration afterward  pursued  a 
course  in  the  College  of  Agricul- 
ture at  the  University  of  Illinois. 

Without  doubt  these  two  stalks 
of  corn  had  some  influence  upon 
him  in  making  his  plans. 


29 


Prize  Corn 


30 


No  Treatment. 


31 


Manure. 


32 


Manure  and  Limb. 


33 


Manure,  Lime,  and  Phosphorus. 


Manure,  Lime,  Phosphorus,  and  Potassium. 


35 


Students  Comparing  Corn  Plots. 


36 


Treatment. 


37 


Full  Treatment. 


38 


Oats.  Removing  Protective  Border. 


39 


Oats.  Protective  Border  Removed.  Grain  Ready  to  Harvest. 


40 


Oats.  No  Treatment. 


41 


Oats.  Full  Treatment. 


42 


Students  Comparing  Oat  Plots. 


43 


Harvesting  the  Oats. 

The  oats  grow  upon  two  series,  each  containing  five  plots.  One  series 
is  located  in  the  system  of  grain  farming  and  the  other  is  located  in  the 
system  of  mixed,  or  live  stock  farming.  The  plan  provides  for  a protective 
border  of  grain  one-fourth  of  a rod  in  width  around  each  plot.  The  pro- 
tective border  is  removed  from  around  each  plot  before  harvesting  the 


Harvesting  Oats. 


square  rod,  which  contains  the  grain  grown  in  the  experiment.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  measure  these  areas  very  accurately  in  order  to  get  the  exact  loca- 
tion of  the  plot  and  obtain  one  square  rod  of  grain.  Lines  are  run  from  the 
permanent  corner  posts  to  the  series  lines  which  separate  the  series  of  five 
plots  from  the  protective  border  strips.  Lines  are  run  at  right  angles  to 
the  series.  These  secondary  lines  separate  the  series  into  five  plots  with  the 
protective  border  strips  intervening.  When  the  grain  growing  on  the  pro- 
tective borders  is  harvested,  it  is  bound  in  sheaves  and  placed  in  shocks  a 
short  distance  away  from  the  experiment  plots.  When  this  is  practiced 
there  is  little  danger  of  confusion  in  the  sheaves.  The  series  now  presents 
five  separated  plots  and  offers  the  best  opportunity  for  comparing  the  ef- 
fects of  the  treatment  at  any  time  during  the  growing  of  the  crop.  The 
students  in  agriculture  assist  in  harvesting  the  plots  and  at  the  same  time 
make  observations.  The  differences  in  the  crops  grown  upon  the  five  plots 
are  marked  so  distinctly,  usually,  that  the  effects  of  treatment  are  seen 
readily.  There  has  been  little  apparent  difference  as  a rule  between  plot 
No.  4 and  plot  No.  5 in  each  series,  when  observed  in  the  field,  but  in  most 
instances  there  has  been  a difference  shown  when  the  yields  were  weighed. 
The  color  of  the  straw,  the  height  of  the  grain,  the  size  of  the  head,  the 


44 


number  of  plants,  i.  e.  “the  thickness  of  the  stand,”  and  other  qualities 
are  manifest.  When  convenient  other  classes  are  invited  to  visit  the  field. 
A number  of  County  Superintendents  who  happened  to  be  visiting  the 
school  have  seen  the  grain  at  harvest  time.  Each  plot  is  harvested  sepa- 
rately and  the  sheaves  are  labeled  with  the  number  of  the  plot  and  the 
number  of  the  series  upon  which  they  grew.  The  sheaves  are  then  placed  in 
five  separate  shocks  to  cure. 

Threshing  the  Oats 

When  the  sheaves  are  thoroughly  dry,  which  usually  is  in  about  ten  days, 
the  oats  are  threshed  to  determine  the  yield  per  acre.  The  method  of 
threshing  is  accomplished  indirectly  by  taking  uniform  samples  and  thresh- 


ing the  samples  in  duplicate.  A sample  sufficiently  large  to  represent  the 
plot  is  weighed  in  the  sheaf,  i.  e.  both  grain  and  straw.  The  grains  are 
carefully  threshed  out  by  palming  the  heads.  The  straw  is  then  ex- 
amined and  any  remaining  grains  are  picked  off  one  at  a time.  The  chaff 
is  thoroughly  blown  out  and  the  duplicate  samples  weighed  on  a pair  of 
balances  sensitive  to  one-tenth  of  a gram.  The  proportion  of  grain  to 
straw  is  easily  reduced  to  a percentage  basis.  The  sheaves  on  the  entire 
plot  are  now  weighed  and  the  amount  of  grain  computed.  Since  the  ex- 
periment plot  is  one  square  rod  in  area  it  is  readily  reduced  to  the  acre 
basis.  While  this  method  is  not  the  best,  it  is  more  accurate  than  thresh- 
ing such  small  amounts  in  a steam  thresher.  The  method  has  shown  only 
a slight  variation  when  checked,  which  indicates  reasonable  accuracy.  It 
is  planned  to  have  constructed  a small  threshing  outfit  which  will  separate 
all  of  the  grain  from  the  straw.  This  latter  method  is  the  best  of  any 
without  doubt. 

The  methods  employed  in  handling  the  oat  crop  are  used  throughout 
in  computing  the  yield  of  wheat.  The  grain  is  cut  with  a cradle,  which  is 


45 


the  best  method  considering  the  size  of  the  plots.  Occasionally  when  the 
grain  is  tangled  a reap  hook  is  used.  With  one  or  two  exceptions  a man 
living  near  the  campus  has  been  employed  to  cradle  the  grain. 

Oat  Smut 

The  treatment  for  oat  smut  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive  and  when 
it  is  once  realized,  the  loss  due  to  the  damaging  effect  of  smut  can  be  over- 
come with  little  inconvenience..  In  an  experiment  of  eight  tests  with  as 
many  varieties  of  oats  treated  with  a solution  of  formalin,  reported  by  one 
investigator,  no  signs  of  smut  were  found  in  the  growing  grain.  The  pro- 
portions were,  one  pint  of  formalin  to  twenty  gallons  of  water.  The  cost 
of  the  treatment  is  a little  more  than  ten  cents  per  acre. 

The  students  prepared  a solution  of  formalin  and  treated  the  seed  oats 
the  day  previous  to  seeding.  The  amount  of  seed  required  for  the  experi- 
ments was  small  and  the  treatment  was  performed  as  one  of  the  laboratory 
exercises.  The  seed  was  spread  out  evenly  upon  a table  and  sprinkled  with 
the  solution  and  thoroughly  mixed.  Then  the  treated  seed  was  put  into  a 
large  jar  and  allowed  to  stand  for  about  ten  minutes  after  having  been 
carefully  covered.  When  the  solution  had  acted  sufficiently,  the  seed  was 
again  spread  upon  a table  evenly  and  allowed  to  dry.  No  trace  of  smut 
was  observed  upon  any  of  the  plots  at  any  stage  of  the  growing  crop. 


46 


Wheat.  No  Treatment.  Ready  to  Cut. 


Wheat.  Pule  Treatment.  Border  Removed.  Ready  to  Cut. 


48 


Students  Harvesting  Wheat. 


49 


Wheat.  The  Harvest. 


50 


No  Treatment. 


51 


Manure. 


5 2 


Manure  and  Lime. 


53 


Manure,  Lime  and  Phosphorus. 


54 


Manure,  Lime,  Phosphorus  and  Potassium. 


55 


Comparison  op  Plot  Yields. 


56 


The  Clover  Plots. 


57 


THE  BABCOCK  MILK  TEST 


Acid 

Measure 


The  Babcock  milk  test  affords  one  of  the  most  practicable  of  all  class- 
room exercises.  Its  operation  is  so  simple  that  any  fifteen  years  old  student 
with  a little  instruction  can  perform  the  test  accurately.  Samples  of  milk 
can  be  secured  at  home  and  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  determined  quick- 
ly and  easily. 

The  materials  necessary  to  make  the  test  are  a hand-power  tester,  a 
few  milk  test-bottles,  an  acid  measure  graduated  to  17.5  cc.,  a bottle  of  sul- 
phuric acid  with  a specific  gravity  of  1.82,  a pipette  graduated  to  17.6, 
one-half  pint  of  milk,  and  some  hot  water. 

Sample.  The  milk  should  be  poured  several  times 
from  one  pail  to  another  to  insure  thorough  mixing,  and 
a small  quantity  taken  at  once  and  tested.  Carefully  draw 
into  the  pipette  by  sucking  a quantity  of  milk  a little 
above  the  17.6  cc.  mark  and  quickly  place  the  first  finger 
over  the  upper  end.  Gently  release  the 
finger  and  allow  the  milk  to  run  out  till 
the  upper  surface  of  the  milk  in  the  tube 
is  even  with  the  17.6  cc.  mark.  Place  the 
lower  end  of  the  pipette  in  the  neck  of  the 
test-bottle  and  incline  it  so  the  milk  will 
run  down  the  side  of  the  neck.  Wait  till 
as  much  of  the  milk  will  drain  out  of  itself 
as  is  possible,  then  blow  the  last  drop  out. 

It  is  necessary  that  every  drop  should  be 
taken.  The  milk  should  be  sampled  in  duplicate  to  check 
results. 

Before  making  another  test,  rinse  out  the  pipette  with 
the  milk  to  be  tested. 

Acid.  The  acid  is  very  corrosive  and  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  come  in  contact  with  the  hands  or 
the  clothing.  Should  any  be  accidentally 
spilled,  it  must  be  washed  off  immediately 
with  plenty  of  water. 

Carefully  fill  the  acid  measure  to  the 
17.5  cc.  mark  and  pour  it  slowly  into  the 
test-bottle  containing  the  sample  of  milk. 

This  is  done  by  inclining  the  test-bottle  and 
allowing  the  acid  to  run  down  one  side  of 
the  neck  of  the  test-bottle  slowly.  By  this 
method  the  small  quantity  of  milk  in  the 
neck  is  washed  down.  If  this  is  done  prop- 
erly a layer  of  acid  will  form  under  the 

Mmilk. 

Hold  the  test-bottle  by  the  upper  end  of 
the  neck  and  with  a circular  motion  mix  the  acid  with 
milk.  By  the  time  the  contents  are  thoroughly  mixed  the 
mixture  will  be  dark  colored  .and  quite  hot.  The  acid  has 
now  dissolved  all  of  the  solids  of  the  milk  except  the  but- 
ter fat. 


Pipette 


Test  Bottle 


58 


Separation  of  Butter  Fat.  The  bottles  should  he  placed  in  the  tester 
and  whirled  while  hot.  Always  place  the  duplicates  opposite  each  other  to 
preserve  the  balance  of  the  tester.  The  bottles  should  be  whirled  five  min- 
utes at  the  speed  indicated  by  the  tester  which  is  in  use.  Do  not  stop  the 
tester.  Let  it  stop  itself.  Fill  the  bottles  up  to  the  lower  end  of  the  neck 
with  hot  water,  and  whirl  again  two  minutes.  Let  the  tester  stop.  Fill 
the  bottles  with  hot  water  again  till  the  upper  edge  of  the  butter  fat  is 
nearly  up  to  the  top  of  the  graduations  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  The 
bottles  should  be  whirled  again  one  minute.  If  the  test  is  properly  made 
the  butter  fat  will  appear  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and  form  a clear  column 
of  fat. 

How  to  Read  the  Percentage.  The  fat  must  be  kept  warm  and  fluid. 
Take  hold  of  the  upper  end  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and  bring  the  upper 
graduation  line  on  a level  with  the  eye.  The  upper  and  lower  surface  of  the 
fat  will  form  a curved  line.  Read  the  butter  fat  as  illustrated  in  the  cut. 
from  A to  B.  The  upper  reading  is  4.4.  The  lower  reading  is  .3.  The  per- 
centage of  butter  fat  is  the  difference  between  them,  or  4.1%. 

The  difference  between  the  two  readings  is  the  per  cent 
of  butter  fat.  Usually  the  graduations  read  as  high  as 
10  per  cent.  Each  space  representing  1 per  cent  is  divided 
into  smaller  spaces  each  representing  .2  per  cent.  If  for 
instance  the  upper  reading  is  9.4  and  the  lower  is  6.2,  the 
difference  is  3.2,  which  is  the  per  cent  of  butter  fat.  This 
would  mean  that  there  are  three  and  two-tenths  pounds 
of  butter  fat  in  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  tested. 

The  directions  given  above  are  very  brief  and  serve 
merely  to  give  an  idea  of  the  method.  With  every  tester 
there  is  supplied  more  complete  directions  which  give  rea- 
sons for  every  step. 


-& 


How  to  Read 
Per  Cent  of 
Butter  Fat 


BABCOCK  MILK  TEST  IN  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

A Babcock  milk  tester  could  be  very  easily  and  cheaply 
obtained  for  use  in  the  country  school  and  it  is  desirable 
that  each  school  should  own  one.  The  cost  need  not  ex- 
ceed five  dollars  for  the  complete  outfit.  The  teacher  could 
learn  to  operate  it  by  carefully  reading  the  directions  and 
making  one  or  two  preliminary  trials.  If  the  teacher  pre- 
fers, she  may  learn  the  method  in  a few  minutes  by  ob- 
serving some  one  to  make  the  test  as  a demonstration. 

There  is  no  better  way  of  introducing  the  subject  of  agriculture  in  the 
country  school  than  by  making  the  pupils  and  their  parents  familiar  with 
the  value  of  this  test.  The  knowledge  of  its  use  is  valuable  to  every  fam- 
ily in  the  district.  As  an  exercise  for  the  pupils  in  the  upper  grades,  it  is 
without  comparison.  The  pupils  could  bring  samples  of  milk  from  the 
cows  at  home,  make  the  determination  of  butter  fat,  and  take  the  results 
home  to  their  parents.  There  is  no  better  mediator  between  the  home  and 
the  school  than  the  pupil,  and  when  the  confidence  of  the  parents  in  the 
teacher  is  once  established  there  would  be  little  trouble  in  introducing 
other  exercises  in  agriculture.  It  may  be  safely  said  that  the  teacher  should 
introduce  the  subject  of  agriculture  with  some  exercise  having  a scientific 
aspect  and  one  which  is  both  simple  and  practical. 


59 


As  an  illustration,  it  may  be  interesting  to  narrate  the  following  exper- 
ience. During  the  McDonough  County  Institute,  Supt.  B.  E.  Decker  re- 
quested that  something  he  given  in  one  of  the  lectures  before  the  institute 
which  would  be  practical  in  teaching  agriculture  in  the  country  schools, 
and  it  was  hoped,  stimulate  some  of  them  enough  to  begin  some  sort  of 
work  in  the  subject.  The  Babcock  milk  test  was  chosen.  Samples  of  milk 
were  tested  before  the  institute  and  each  step  of  the  method  explained  as 
the  test  proceeded.  With  the  percentages  of  butter  fat  and  other  facts  at 
hand,  the  teachers  easily  calculated  the  value  of  each  individual  cow.  By 
a little  comparison  it  was  clearly  seen  which  cow  would  yield  a profit,  and 
which  would  not  earn  her  keep.  In  order  to  convince  the  teachers  of  the 
ease  with  which  the  test  could  be  made,  a young  man  who  observed  the  test 
brought  five  samples  of  milk  from  home  the  next  day  and  performed  the 
test  determining  the  percentages  of  butter  fat  in  his  own  cows  before  a 
group  of  sixty  interested  teachers  who  wished  to  see  the  method  of  testing 
milk  repeated.  This  is  evidence  enough  to  convince  any  teacher  that  she 
can  test  milk  with  the  Babcock  Tester  without  having  had  previously  any 
considerable  experience. 


Sample 
No.  1 
No.  2 
No.  3 
No.  4 
No.  5 


Result  of  the  Test. 


Butter  Fat 
3.6% 
4.0% 
3.6% 
5.8% 
4.0% 


Pounds  of  Butter  Fat. 

The  method  of  determining  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat  is  under- 
stood very  easily,  and  may  be  employed  as  a useful  exercise  by  the  teacher 
in  the  arithmetic  class.  It  may  be  illustrated  by  one  of  the  tests  given 
above.  The  cow  whose  milk  in  Sample  No.  1 yielded  a percentage  of  3.6 
produced  44  pounds  of  milk  as  a daily  average.  To  find  the  pounds  of 
butter  fat  multiply  the  daily  average,  44  pounds,  by  the  percent  3.8,  and 
divide  the  product,  158.4,  by  100  and  the  quotient,  1.584,  is  the  weight  of 
butter  fat. 

It  is  gratifying  to  learn  since,  that  ten  of  the  teachers  mentioned  in 
the  foregoing  narration  have  decided  to  use  the  Babcock  Tester  in  their 
schools.  Supt.  B.  E.  Decker  authorizes  the  following  statement:  “I  am  go- 
ing to  purchase  a Babcock  Tester  and  take  it  with  me  when  I visit  schools, 
and  show  the  teacher  how  to  use  it.” 


60 


Babcock  Milk  Tester.  Four  Bottles. 


ihmc;  - 

1 

. 

i 

• Is 

Babcock  Mii.k  Tester.  Six  Bottles. 


62 


Jennie. 


63 


Jennie. 


Jennie  is  a full  bred  Jersey  cow  and  was  purchased  when  four  years  of 
age  for  $75  by  a member  of  the  Normal  Faculty.  She  is  now  five  years  old 
and  her  performance  during  the  past  year  is  very  creditable,  so  good  that 
it  is  worth  while  to  mention  the  essentials  for  comparison.  The  owner  has 
furnished  the  data  which  forms  the  averages  and  may  not  be  exact  for  some 
specific  data  but  the  owner  agrees  that  the  averages  and  the  tests  are  per- 
fectly reliable. 

Her  period  of  lactation,  which  is  the  total  number  of  days  in  milk,  in  the 
last  instance  is  eleven  months.  During  this  time  she  produced  8430  pounds 
of  whole  milk.  At  four  different  times  her  milk  was  tested  with  the  re- 
sults as  given  below  in  a table. 

Date  Daily,  Lbs.  Fat  % 

January  1 36  6 

May  1 30  6.4 

September  1 22  6.75 

November  1 8 7 

It  may  be  supposed  that  33  pounds  per  day  is  an  average  production  of 
milk  from  January  1 to  May  1,  which  would  make  a total  yield  of  3960 
pounds  in  120  days.  Similarly,  if  30  pounds  per  day  be  taken  as  the  average 
from  May  1 to  September  1,  the  total  yield  would  be  3120  pounds.  And  for 
the  last  period  of  three  months  at  an  average  daily  production  of  15  pounds, 
the  total  would  be  1350  pounds.  Considering  these  quantities  to  be  rea- 
sonably correct,  the  entire  milk  production  during  the  period  of  lactation 
would  be  8430  pounds.  Some  of  the  milk  was  used  in  the  family,  but  the 
remainder  was  sold  at  six  cents  a quart.  If  all  of  the  milk  had  been  sold 
the  gross  income  would  be  $252.90.  After  deducting  the  cost  of  feed  and 
pasture,  which  was  $55,  the  profit  is  $197.90.  The  cost  of  labor  is  not 
reckoned  because  the  by-products  balance  it.  The  interest  on  $75,  the  cost 
of  the  cow,  and  her  share  in  the  upkeep  of  the  buildings,  $12,  and  her  de- 
preciation in  value,  $5,  make  all  together  $29.50,  which  should  be  de- 
ducted, leaving  a net  profit  of  $178.40. 


64 


SCHOOL  GARDEN. 

The  school  garden  occupies  a rectangular  piece  of  ground  iy2  rods  in 
width  by  7 y2  rods  in  length  lying  south  of  the  soil  experiment  field,  and 
is  enclosed  by  the  same  fence.  For  convenience  two  gates,  one  small  and 

one  large,  are  placed  at  the  corner  nearest  the  Normal  building.  It  was 

found  necessary  to  protect  the  garden  plants  and  the  field  crops  from  tres- 
passers and  various  domestic  animals.  Besides  thoughtless  persons;  cattle, 
horses,  and  dogs  injured  the  growing  crops.  A woven  wire  fence  having 
small  meshes,  supported  with  cedar  posts,  was  erected.  The  fence  is  five  and 
one-half  feet  high.  To  prevent  dogs  from  climbing  over,  two  hog  wires  were 
stapled  at  the  top  of  the  post,  one  on  the  inside  and  the  other  on  the  out- 
side. The  fence  is  proof  against  all  trespassers.  The  posts  are  painted  a 

forest  green  color,  which  improves  the  general  appearance  of  the  field  and 
garden  very  much. 

At  the  beginning  the  garden  was  divided  equally  into  four  areas,  one 
for  each  two  grades,  but  later  it  has  been  divided  equally  into  three  areas 
and  set  apart  for  the  first  six  grades.  The  seventh  and  eighth  grades  now 
occupy  a similar  area  just  west  of  the  original  tract.  The  first  area  is  cul- 
tivated by  grades  one  and  two,  which  correspond  to  the  grouping  of  grades 
in  the  training  school.  This  plan  is  carried  throughout  the  entire  eight 
grades.  The  head  instructor  in  Education  in  co-operation  with  the  in- 
structor in  Agriculture  works  out  the  details  of  the  plan,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  the  training  teachers  directs  the  work  of  the  pupil-teachers 
and  pupils.  Educative  values  and  principles  of  cultivation  including  the 
economic  phases  are  emphasized  rather  than  the  cultivation  of  a large  va- 
riety of  garden  products.  The  plans  include  a variety  of  garden  crops  suf- 
ficiently large  to  cover  the  practice  in  the  ordinary  home  vegetable  garden. 
These  varieties  are  arranged  in  an  ascending  sequence  of  difficulty  in  cul- 
tivation, assigning  of  course  those  requiring  the  least  care  to  the  lowest 
grades.  And  while  the  lower  grades  have  no  responsibility  in  the  care  or 
the  garden  in  the  upper  grades,  they  have  the  opportunity  of  observing  all 
others  at  work.  The  same  advantage  is  offered  to  the  other  grades. 

The  garden  work  is  correlated  to  their  work  in  nature  study  and  man- 
ual training. 


School  Garden. 


65 


FARMERS’  INSTITUTE 

The  Soil  Experiment  Field  besides  being  a vital  factor  in  aiding  the 
students  in  their  courses  in  agriculture  is  available  for  inspection  to  any 
one  interested.  Visitors  are  welcome  at  all  times,  and  especially  those  who 
are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  are  invited  to  visit  the  field  and  observe 
the  growing  crops.  While  a large  number  have  seen  the  grain  upon  the 
plots  and  have  expressed  themselves  freely  upon  the  merits  of  scientific 
methods  in  agricultural  practice,  it  is  desired  that  others  may  find  it  con- 
venient to  visit  the  field  at  a time  when  the  results  of  the  treatments  show 
the  effects  at  a good  advantage. 

The  Normal  School  co-operates  heartily  with  the  Farmers’  Institute 
by  sending  its  instructors  to  lecture  at  the  various  meetings  which  are  held 
during  the  year.  It  enourages  the  students  to  attend  the  sessions  of  the 
institute  where  they  can  hear  men  speak  who  are  experts  in  some  depart- 
ment of  agricultural  investigation.  Some  of  the  young  men  who  have  at- 
tended these  lectures  and  have  seen  the  crops  growing  on  the  Soil  Experi- 
ment Field  have  induced  their  parents  to  purchase  raw  rock  phosphate  and 
ground  limestone.  In  one  instance  a young  man  induced  his  father  to  pur- 
chase a car  load  of  phosphate.  It  is  very  convincing  to  see  plots  of  grain 
growing  only  a few  feet  apart  with  such  a marked  difference  in  yield  as  indi- 
cated by  the  last  wheat  harvest  illustrated  on  another  page. 

The  prize  corn  in  the  illustration  was  grown  by  a young  man  who  is  a 
regular  attendant  at  the  Farmers’  Institute  and  who  attended  three  short 
courses  at  the  College  of  Agriculture,  Urbana,  Illinois.  As  the  ribbons 
indicate,  he  received  two  prizes.  One  was  the  first  premium  in  a contest 
between  the  growers  over  all  contestants  in  the  entire  state  who  were  in  at- 
tendance at  the  short  course  given  at  the  College  of  Agriculture.  He  grew 
the  “Perfect  Ear,”  also,  which  is  found  on  another  page  in  this  circular. 
The  variety  of  corn  is  Reid’s  Yellow  Dent  and  is  grown  from  pure  bred 
seed.  For  four  years  he  has  been  growing  this  variety  upon  a separate 
tract  of  about  five  acres.  The  high  grade  of  corn  shown  in  the  two  illus- 
trations is  the  result  of  continued  selection.  It  was  his  intention  to  de- 
tassel the  corn  but  he  was  unable  to  accomplish  this  over  the  entire  tract. 

The  foregoing  is  given  as  an  illustration  of  the  interest  among  the 
young  men  on  the  farms  who  are  looking  toward  better  agriculture.  Among 
a total  attendance  of  nearly  five  hundred  at  the  institute  about  one-third 
were  young  men. 


66 


67 


DESCRIPTION  OF  EXPERIMENT  PLOTS. 

The  land  upon  which  the  plots  are  located  was  an  open  tract  for  twenty- 
five  years  and  was  used  more  or  less  as  a village  pasture  according  to 
statements  made  by  some  of  the  old  residents.  Formerly  it  was  used  for 
farming,  but  since  it  did  not  produce  profitable  crops  it  was  allowed  to  run 
wild.  Trespassers  made  a diagonal  road  across  it,  thereby  making  a short 
eut  between  the  village  and  Crooked  Creek,  a stream  flowing  to  the  north 
of  the  field  approximately  one  mile.  Two  factors  tend  to  disturb  the  fer- 
tility and  productivity  of  the  plots.  One  is  the  road  and  the  other  the  re- 
sults of  the  grazing  animals.  The  influence  of  these  factors  would  of  course 
be  more  pronounced  when  the  plots  were  planted  to  crops.  The  situation 
was  accepted  with  the  hope  that  continued  treatment  would  in  time  over- 
come the  original  unevenness  existing  between  the  individual  plots.  The 
plots  were  not  enclosed  with  a fence  till  the  third  year.  As  a result  some 
of  the  plot  yields  suffered  injury  through  the  carelessness  of  trespassers. 
Some  of  the  crops  were  damaged  by  animals.  Some  person  walked  across 
the  corn  series  and  broke  down  twenty-two  stalks  of  corn  in  crossing  five 
rows.  This  was  something  more  than  carelessness.  One  night  in  1908  so 
much  of  the  corn  was  stolen  from  series  400  and  800  that  the  yields  were 
unreliable  and  useless  for  record.  As  a rule  the  plots  in  the  grain  system 
of  the  north  division  suffered  more  often.  The  experience  in  conducting 
the  plot  experiments  teaches  at  least  two  important  essentials  in  success- 
ful operation;  first,  the  plots  must  be  protected  by  a suitable  fence,  and 
second,  the  plots  must  be  uniform  in  original  fertility.  The  latter  is  shown 
by  the  plot  yields.  Plots  number  504  and  505  in  the  500  series,  and  604 
and  605  in  the  600  series  were  crossed  by  the  diagonal  road  mentioned 
above.  In  nearly  every  instance  they  produced  a smaller  yield  than  plots 
503  and  603  though  they  received  more  fertilization.  In  comparing  the  eight 
series  of  plots  by  the  crops  produced  in  all  the  years,  series  700  and  800 
seem  to  have  been  more  nearly  uniform  in  original  fertility.  The  treatment 
on  these  plots  always  showed  well  defined  contrasts  in  yields,  making  ideal 
object  lessons  for  student  observation.  On  the  other  series  of  plots  the 
negative  factor  in  crop  yields  was  always  traceable,  and  although  the  gradu- 
ated sequence  in  yields  anticipated  by  treatment  was  sometimes  broken, 
the  lesson  taught  was  quite  as  valuable  as  in  the  yields  of  the  series  700 
and  800.  Some  of  the  factors  are  mentioned  for  purposes  of  illustration. 
A horse  rolled  on  oat  plot  202  in  1907.  Some  clover  plots  winter-killed 
more  than  others;  the  corn  root-louse  and  moles  injured  some  of  the  corn. 
Plots  101  and  103  produced  the  largest  yields  in  some  instances,  which 
seem  to  indicate  greater  original  fertility. 


68 

GRAIN  SYSTEM,  1907. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

200 

300 

400 

Corn,  bu 

Oats,  bu 

Spring  wheat,  bu1.  . . . 
Clover,  tons2  

70.28 

27.00 

69.14 

27.88 

71.71 

36.60 

73.14 

43.78 

75.43 

47.36 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1907. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

500 

'600 

700 

800 

Corn,  bu 

Oats,  bu 

Spring  wheat,  bu1.... 
Clover,  bu.2  

74.27 

27.69 

74.68 

28.19 

74.87 

39.70 

73.48 

19.74 

73.71 

19.20 

1Spring  wheat  failed. 
2Clover  failed. 


GRAIN  SYSTEM,  1908. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

200 

300 

400 

Oats,  bu 

Wheat,  bu 

Clover,  tons  

Corn  bu.1  

40.95 

12.90 

1.04 

37.08 

13.81 

1.20 

38.95 

16.32 

1.60 

37.40 

19.28 

1.92 

40.80 

19.42 

1.92 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1908. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

500 

Oats,  bu 

45.50 

46.45 

42.14 

43.03 

47.36 

600 

Wheat,  bu 

14.76 

15.87 

16.09 

12.38 

10.30 

700 

Clover,  tons  

1.28 

2.08 

2.32 

2.32 

2.40 

800 

Corn  bu.1  

1Corn  husked  by  trespassers;  results  unreliable. 


GRAIN  SYSTEM,  1909. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

Wheat,  bu 

26.10 

29.47 

28.13 

29.25 

30.04 

200 

Clover,  tons  

1.26 

1.66 

1.98 

2.14 

2.32 

300 

Corn,  bu 

49.58 

50.16 

54.12 

61.02  | 

66.12 

400 

Oats,  bu 

44.10 

47.60 

47.60 

48.10 

48.10 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1909. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

500 

Wheat,  bu 

22.73 

29.60 

31.73 

32.50 

31.50 

600 

Clover,  tons  

1.96 

1.62 

1.72 

1.84 

1.94 

700 

Corn,  bu 

65.68 

77.33 

88.52 

86.34 

86.06 

800 

Oats,  bu 

44.10 

55.60 

58.10 

59.80 

61.60 

Corn  plots  704  and  705  were  damaged  by  moles. 


69 


GRAIN  SYSTEM.  1910. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

200 

Clover  tons1 

Corn,  bu 

43.42 

47.71 

43.71 

46.42 

48.71 

300 

Oats,  bu 

46.00 

52.00 

52.00 

58.00 

59.00 

400 

Wheat,  bu 

12.63 

21.70 

23.32 

24.24 

24.24 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1910. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

500 

600 

Glover,  tons1  

Corn,  bu 

48.00 

700 

Oats,  bu 

40.00 

800 

Wheat,  bu 

12.70 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

52.85 

54.00 

49.71 

42.61 

58.00 

62.00 

66.00 

67.50 

20.05 

25.03 

32.00 

35.70 

1Clover  winter-killed. 


GRAIN  SYSTEM,  1911. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

200 

300 

400 

Corn,  bu 

Oats,  bu 

Wheat,  bu.1  

51.75 

29.36 

58.94 

31.24 

66.70 

32.12 

63.54 

34.12 

65.89 

36.62 

Clover,  tons  

1.32 

.56 

1.40 

1.96 

1.96 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1911. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

500 

600 

700 

800 

Corn,  bu 

Oats,  bu 

Wheat,  bu.1  

54.05 

31.36 

56.35 

37.10 

61.33 

33.62 

68.42 

33.62 

66.70 

26.12 

Clover,  tons  

1.24 

1.68 

2.90 

3.20 

3.20 

GRAIN  SYSTEM,  1912. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

Oats,  bu 

42.20 

45.45 

55.00 

51.37 

52.80 

200 

Oats,  bu.2  

55.00 

59.50 

66.00 

67.45 

68.46 

300 

Clover,  tons  

2.26 

1.36 

2.16 

2.04 

2.84 

400 

Corn,  bu 

53.71 

l 53.71 

62.86 

70.86 

68.00 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1912. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

500 

Oats,  bu 

47.81 

54.23 

56.17 

51.35 

39.15 

600 

Oats,  bu.2  

59.18 

61.21 

1 69.19 

64.90 

43.12 

700 

Clover,  tons  

2.62 

2.82 

3.24 

3.50 

3.62 

800 

Corn,  bu 

52.57 

74.57 

88.00 

88.00 

85.14 

xWheat  winter-killed. 

“Wheat  winter-killed  and  oats  were  seeded  on  the  wheat  plots. 


70 


GRAIN  SYSTEM,  1913. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

100 

Wheat,  bu 

22.02 

22.25 

26.17 

23.87 

22.08 

200 

Clover,  1st  crop,  tons. 

.46 

.78 

1.04 

1.42 

1.24 

Clover,  2d  crop,  tons. 

.30 

.32 

.31 

.38 

300 

Corn,  bu 

25.20 

12.30 

22.20 

30.90 

27.90 

400 

Oats,  bu 

34.56 

17.31 

22.32 

27.65 

26.76 

LIVE  STOCK  SYSTEM,  1913. 


Series 

Crop 

Plot  1 

Plot  2 

Plot  3 

Plot  4 

Plot  5 

500 

Wheat,  bu 

23.21 

25.96 

23.69 

27.62 

21.17 

600 

Clover,  1st  crop,  tons. 

.38 

1.02 

1.58 

1.66 

1.16 

Clover,  2d  crop,  tons. 

.18 

.26 

.42 

.40 

.30 

700 

Corn,  bu 

20.40 

19.50 

32.70 

32.70 

29.40 

800 

Oats,  bu 

23.15 

28.56 

32.01 

37.56 

39.12 

The  Soil  Experiment  Field  was  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Charles  W.  Finley 
during-  the  year  1913.  The  above  records  were  reported  by  him. 


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